British rule in Burma

Conflict began between Burma and the British when the Konbaung dynasty decided to expand into Arakan in the state of [[Assam]], close to British-held [[Chittagong]] in India. This led to the [[First Anglo-Burmese War]] (1824–26). The British dispatched a large seaborne expedition that took [[Yangon|Rangoon]] without a fight in 1824. In [[Danubyu Township|Danuphyu]], at the Ayeyarwaddy Delta, Burmese General [[Maha Bandula]] was killed and his armies routed. Burma was forced to cede Assam and other northern provinces.World Book Encyclopedia The 1826 [[Treaty of Yandabo]] formally ended the First Anglo-Burmese War, the longest and the most expensive war in the history of [[British India]]. Fifteen thousand European and Indian soldiers died, together with an unknown number of Burmese army and civilian casualties.{{cite book | title=The Making of Modern Burma | url=https://archive.org/details/makingmodernburm00myin | url-access=limited | pages=[https://archive.org/details/makingmodernburm00myin/page/n27 18]| author=Thant Myint-U|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-79914-7}} The campaign cost the British between 5 and 13 million pounds sterling (between 18 and 48 billion in 2020 [[United States dollar|U.S. dollars]]){{cite book | title=The River of Lost Footsteps—Histories of Burma | pages=113, 125–127| author=Thant Myint-U|year=2006|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |isbn=978-0-374-16342-6}} which led to an economic crisis in British India in 1833.{{cite book | title=Gentlemen Capitalists: British Imperialism in South East Asia, 1770–1890 | first=Anthony|last= Webster | publisher=I.B.Tauris | year=1998 | pages=142–145 | isbn=978-1-86064-171-8}}

Conflict began between Burma and the British when the Konbaung dynasty decided to expand into Arakan in the state of [[Assam]], close to British-held [[Chittagong]] in India. This led to the [[First Anglo-Burmese War]] (1824–26). The British dispatched a large seaborne expedition that took [[Yangon|Rangoon]] without a fight in 1824. In [[Danubyu Township|Danuphyu]], at the Ayeyarwaddy Delta, Burmese General [[Maha Bandula]] was killed and his armies routed. Burma was forced to cede Assam and other northern provinces.World Book Encyclopedia The 1826 [[Treaty of Yandabo]] formally ended the First Anglo-Burmese War, the longest and the most expensive war in the history of [[British India]]. Fifteen thousand European and Indian soldiers died, together with an unknown number of Burmese army and civilian casualties.{{cite book | title=The Making of Modern Burma | url=https://archive.org/details/makingmodernburm00myin | url-access=limited | pages=[https://archive.org/details/makingmodernburm00myin/page/n27 18]| author=Thant Myint-U|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-79914-7}} The campaign cost the British between 5 and 13 million pounds sterling (between 18 and 48 billion in 2020 [[United States dollar|U.S. dollars]]){{cite book | title=The River of Lost Footsteps—Histories of Burma | pages=113, 125–127| author=Thant Myint-U|year=2006|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |isbn=978-0-374-16342-6}} which led to an economic crisis in British India in 1833.{{cite book | title=Gentlemen Capitalists: British Imperialism in South East Asia, 1770–1890 | first=Anthony|last= Webster | publisher=I.B.Tauris | year=1998 | pages=142–145 | isbn=978-1-86064-171-8}}

[[File:Bengal Presidency in British India with dependencies 1852.png|thumb|The [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal Presidency of British India]] in 1852, with the coastal areas of Burma and the [[Straits Settlements]] forming part of it]]

[[File:Bengal Presidency in British India with dependencies 1852.png|thumb|The [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal Presidency of British India]] in 1852, with the coastal areas of Burma and the [[Straits Settlements]] forming part of it]]

In 1852, the [[Second Anglo-Burmese War]] was provoked by the British, who sought the [[teak]] forests in Lower Burma as well as a port between [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] and [[Singapore]].{{cn|date=November 2024}} After 25 years of peace, British and Burmese fighting started afresh and continued until the British occupied all of Lower Burma. The British were victorious in this war and as a result obtained access to the [[Economy of Myanmar#British Burma (1885–1948)|teak, oil, and rubies]] of their newly conquered territories.{{cn|date=November 2024}}

In 1852, the [[Second Anglo-Burmese War]] was provoked by the British, who sought the [[teak]] forests in Lower Burma as well as a port between [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] and [[Singapore]].{{cn|date=November 2024}} After 25 years of peace, British and Burmese fighting started afresh and continued until the British occupied all of Lower Burma. The British were victorious in this war and, as a result, obtained access to the [[Economy of Myanmar#British Burma (1885–1948)|teak, oil, and rubies]] of their newly conquered territories.{{cn|date=November 2024}}

[[File:British forces arrival mandalay1885.jpg|thumb|Photograph of the arrival of British forces in Mandalay on 28 November 1885 at the end of the [[Third Anglo-Burmese War]]. Photographer: Hooper, Willoughby Wallace (1837–1912)]]

[[File:British forces arrival mandalay1885.jpg|thumb|Photograph of the arrival of British forces in Mandalay on 28 November 1885 at the end of the [[Third Anglo-Burmese War]]. Photographer: Hooper, Willoughby Wallace (1837–1912)]]

===Administration===

===Administration===

The British controlled their new province through [[wikt:direct rule|direct rule]] in the Burmese heartland, making many changes to the previous governmental structure. For example, Burmans lived under a British-style legal code and were governed by a British-style civil service. Areas outside the central plains were governed indirectly through their traditional structures. In this way, ethnic differences between the majority Burmans of the central plain and the ethnic minorities in the hills were exacerbated. This was part of the British colonial practice of "divide and rule".{{Cite book |url=http://www.culturalorientation.net/content/download/1338/7825/version/2/file/refugeesfromburma.pdf |title=Refugees from Burma: Their Backgrounds and Refugee Experiences |publisher=Center for Applied Linguistics |year=2007 |series=Culture Profile 21 |location=Washington, D.C.}}{{Rp|page=6}} The monarchy was abolished, King [[Thibaw Min|Thibaw]] sent into exile, and religion and state separated. This was particularly harmful, because the Buddhist monks, collectively known as the [[Sangha]], were strongly dependent on the sponsorship of the monarchy. At the same time, the monarchy was given legitimacy by the Sangha, and monks as representatives of Buddhism gave the public the opportunity to understand national politics to a greater degree.

The British controlled their new province through [[wikt:direct rule|direct rule]] in the Burmese heartland, making many changes to the previous governmental structure. For example, Burmans lived under a British-style legal code and were governed by a British-style civil service. Areas outside the central plains were governed indirectly through their traditional structures. In this way, ethnic differences between the majority Burmans of the central plain and the ethnic minorities in the hills were exacerbated. This was part of the British colonial practice of "divide and rule".{{Cite book |url=http://www.culturalorientation.net/content/download/1338/7825/version/2/file/refugeesfromburma.pdf |title=Refugees from Burma: Their Backgrounds and Refugee Experiences |publisher=Center for Applied Linguistics |year=2007 |series=Culture Profile 21 |location=Washington, D.C.}}{{Rp|page=6}} The monarchy was abolished, King [[Thibaw Min|Thibaw]] sent into exile, and religion and state separated. This was particularly harmful because the Buddhist monks, collectively known as the [[Sangha]], were strongly dependent on the sponsorship of the monarchy. At the same time, the monarchy was given legitimacy by the Sangha, and monks as representatives of Buddhism gave the public the opportunity to understand national politics to a greater degree.

The [[British Raj]] also implemented a [[secular education]] system. The colonial Government of British India, which was given control of the new colony, founded secular schools, teaching in both English and [[Burmese language|Burmese]], while also encouraging Christian missionaries to visit and found schools. In both of these types of schools, Buddhism and traditional Burmese culture was frowned upon.

The [[British Raj]] also implemented a [[secular education]] system. The colonial Government of British India, which was given control of the new colony, founded secular schools, teaching in both English and [[Burmese language|Burmese]], while also encouraging Christian missionaries to visit and found schools. In both of these types of schools, Buddhism and traditional Burmese culture was frowned upon.

The Christian missionaries had success in converting some of the minority ethnic groups to Christianity, particularly the Chin, Kachin, Karen and Karenni. Furthermore, missionaries built hospitals and schools which, in the minority ethnic areas, spurred the development of writing systems for their languages, which allowed for the promotion of social progress, education and culture.

The Christian missionaries had success in converting some of the minority ethnic groups to Christianity, particularly the Chin, Kachin, Karen and Karenni. Furthermore, missionaries built hospitals and schools, which, in the minority ethnic areas, spurred the development of writing systems for their languages, which allowed for the promotion of social progress, education and culture.

The British abolished chattel slavery in Burma. This was however a gradual process. In the report of slavery in Burma and India to the [[Temporary Slavery Commission]] in the 1920s, the British [[India Office]] stated that the slaves in Assam Bawi in Lushai Hills were now secured the right to buy their freedom; that chattel slavery still existed in parts of Assam with weak British control; that the British negotiated with Hukawng Valley in Upper Burma to end slavery there, where the British provided loans for slaves to buy their freedom; that all slave trade had been banned, and that slavery in Upper Burma was expected to be effectively phased out by 1926.Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 152

The British abolished chattel slavery in Burma. This was however a gradual process. In the report of slavery in Burma and India to the [[Temporary Slavery Commission]] in the 1920s, the British [[India Office]] stated that the slaves in Assam Bawi in Lushai Hills were now secured the right to buy their freedom; that chattel slavery still existed in parts of Assam with weak British control; that the British negotiated with Hukawng Valley in Upper Burma to end slavery there, where the British provided loans for slaves to buy their freedom; that all slave trade had been banned, and that slavery in Upper Burma was expected to be effectively phased out by 1926.Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 152

A new generation of Burmese leaders arose in the early twentieth century from amongst the educated classes, some of whom were permitted to go to London to study law.{{cn|date=November 2024}} They returned with the belief that the Burmese situation could be improved through reform. Progressive constitutional reform in the early 1920s led to a legislature with limited powers, a university and more autonomy for Burma within the administration of India.{{cn|date=November 2024}} Efforts were undertaken to increase the representation of Burmese in the civil service. Some people began to feel that the rate of change was not fast enough and the reforms not extensive enough.{{cn|date=November 2024}}

A new generation of Burmese leaders arose in the early twentieth century from amongst the educated classes, some of whom were permitted to go to London to study law.{{cn|date=November 2024}} They returned with the belief that the Burmese situation could be improved through reform. Progressive constitutional reform in the early 1920s led to a legislature with limited powers, a university and more autonomy for Burma within the administration of India.{{cn|date=November 2024}} Efforts were undertaken to increase the representation of Burmese in the civil service. Some people began to feel that the rate of change was not fast enough and the reforms not extensive enough.{{cn|date=November 2024}}

[[File:Districtcourts publicoffices rangoon1868.jpg|thumb|District Courts and Public Offices, Strand Road, Rangoon, 1868. Photographer J. Jackson]]Social discontent was also on the rise in the 1920s mainly against being disadvantaged in relation to the Indian and Chinese migrants who were financially better. Local population felt strongly against being economically exploited though the communities lived relatively at peace with each other. In 1909 minor changes were made to the Burmese constitution vis-a-vis major reforms to the Indian constitution. Further changes in 1920 aimed to ignore reforms in Burma which led to nationwide protests spearheaded by the barristers.

[[File:Districtcourts publicoffices rangoon1868.jpg|thumb|District Courts and Public Offices, Strand Road, Rangoon, 1868. Photographer J. Jackson]]Social discontent was also on the rise in the 1920s mainly against being disadvantaged in relation to the Indian and Chinese migrants who were financially better. Local population felt strongly against being economically exploited though the communities lived relatively at peace with each other. In 1909, minor changes were made to the Burmese constitution vis-a-vis major reforms to the Indian constitution. Further changes in 1920 aimed to ignore reforms in Burma which led to nationwide protests spearheaded by the barristers.

In 1920 a student strike broke out in protest against the new University Act which the students believed would only benefit the elite and perpetuate colonial rule. 'National Schools' sprang up across the country in protest against the colonial education system, and the strike came to be commemorated as '[[Public holidays in Myanmar|National Day]]'. There were further strikes and anti-tax protests in the later 1920s led by the ''Wunthanu athin''s. Prominent among the political activists were Buddhist monks (''hpongyi''), such as U Ottama and U Seinda in the Arakan who subsequently led an armed rebellion against the British and later the nationalist government after independence, and U Wisara, the first martyr of the movement to die after a protracted hunger strike in prison.

In 1920, a student strike broke out in protest against the new University Act which the students believed would only benefit the elite and perpetuate colonial rule. 'National Schools' sprang up across the country in protest against the colonial education system, and the strike came to be commemorated as '[[Public holidays in Myanmar|National Day]]'. There were further strikes and anti-tax protests in the later 1920s led by the ''Wunthanu athin''s. Prominent among the political activists were Buddhist monks (''hpongyi''), such as U Ottama and U Seinda in the Arakan who subsequently led an armed rebellion against the British and later the nationalist government after independence, and U Wisara, the first martyr of the movement to die after a protracted hunger strike in prison.

=== The rise ===

=== The rise ===

In December 1930, a local tax protest by [[Saya San]] in Tharrawaddy quickly grew into first a regional and then a national insurrection against the government. Lasting for two years, the [[Galon Rebellion]], named after the mythical bird [[Garuda]] – enemy of the [[Nāga|Nagas]] i.e. the British – emblazoned on the pennants the rebels carried, required thousands of British troops to suppress along with promises of further political reform. The eventual trial of Saya San, who was executed, allowed several future national leaders, including Dr [[Ba Maw]] and [[U Saw]], who participated in his defence, to rise to prominence.

In December 1930, a local tax protest by [[Saya San]] in Tharrawaddy quickly grew into first a regional and then a national insurrection against the government. Lasting for two years, the [[Galon Rebellion]], named after the mythical bird [[Garuda]] – enemy of the [[Nāga|Nagas]], i.e. the British – emblazoned on the pennants the rebels carried, required thousands of British troops to suppress along with promises of further political reform. The eventual trial of Saya San, who was executed, allowed several future national leaders, including Dr [[Ba Maw]] and [[U Saw]], who participated in his defence, to rise to prominence.

During the [[1930 Rangoon riots|1930 Rangoon riot]], the ''[[Dobama Asiayone]]'' (We Burmans Association) was founded, whose members called themselves ''thakin'' (an ironic name as ''thakin'' means "master" in the Burmese language – rather like the Indian 'sahib' – proclaiming that they were the true masters of the country entitled to the term usurped by the colonial masters). The second university student strike in 1936 was triggered by the expulsion of [[Aung San]] and [[Thakin Nu|Ko Nu]], leaders of the [[University of Yangon|Rangoon University]] Students Union, for refusing to reveal the name of the author who had written an article in their university magazine, making a scathing attack on one of the senior university officials. It spread to Mandalay leading to the formation of the All Burma Students Union. Aung San and Nu subsequently joined the Thakin movement progressing from student to national politics.

During the [[1930 Rangoon riots|1930 Rangoon riot]], the ''[[Dobama Asiayone]]'' (We Burmans Association) was founded, whose members called themselves ''thakin'' (an ironic name as ''thakin'' means "master" in the Burmese language – rather like the Indian 'sahib' – proclaiming that they were the true masters of the country entitled to the term usurped by the colonial masters). The second university student strike in 1936 was triggered by the expulsion of [[Aung San]] and [[Thakin Nu|Ko Nu]], leaders of the [[University of Yangon|Rangoon University]] Students Union, for refusing to reveal the name of the author who had written an article in their university magazine, making a scathing attack on one of the senior university officials. It spread to Mandalay leading to the formation of the All Burma Students Union. Aung San and Nu subsequently joined the Thakin movement progressing from student to national politics.

{{see also|Japanese invasion of Burma|Burma Campaign|Saharat Thai Doem}}

{{see also|Japanese invasion of Burma|Burma Campaign|Saharat Thai Doem}}

The [[Empire of Japan]] invaded Burma in December 1941 and by the end of 1942 controlled much of the colony. In 1943 the [[State of Burma]] was proclaimed in Rangoon, with the government run as a [[puppet state]] under Japanese control, led by head of state [[Ba Maw]] who escaped from prison in April 1942. Japan never succeeded in fully conquering all of the colony, however, and insurgent activity was pervasive, though not as much of an issue as it was in other former colonies. By 1945, British-led troops, mainly from the [[British Indian Army]], had regained control over most of the colony with Rangoon being recaptured in May 1945.[[File:The_British_Army_in_Burma_1944_SE2911.jpg|thumb|right|The [[British Army]] in Burma 1944]]

The [[Empire of Japan]] invaded Burma in December 1941 and by the end of 1942 controlled much of the colony. In 1943, the [[State of Burma]] was proclaimed in Rangoon, with the government run as a [[puppet state]] under Japanese control, led by head of state [[Ba Maw]] who escaped from prison in April 1942. Japan never succeeded in fully conquering all of the colony, however, and insurgent activity was pervasive, though not as much of an issue as it was in other former colonies. By 1945, British-led troops, mainly from the [[British Indian Army]], had regained control over most of the colony with Rangoon being recaptured in May 1945.[[File:The_British_Army_in_Burma_1944_SE2911.jpg|thumb|right|The [[British Army]] in Burma 1944]]

==After Japanese surrender ==

==After Japanese surrender ==

The surrender of the Japanese brought a military administration to Burma. The British administration sought to try Aung San and other members of the British Indian Army for treason and collaboration with the Japanese.{{cite book | title=The Political Theory of Tyranny in Singapore and Burma | url=https://archive.org/details/politicaltheoryt00mcca | url-access=limited | publisher=Routledge | author=Stephen Mccarthy | year=2006 | page=[https://archive.org/details/politicaltheoryt00mcca/page/n165 153]| isbn=0-415-70186-4}} [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Mountbatten]] knew that a trial was an impossibility considering Aung San's popular appeal. After the war ended, the British governor, [[Colonel (United Kingdom)|Colonel]] [[Reginald Dorman-Smith|Sir Reginald Dorman-Smith]], returned. The restored government established a political programme that focused on the physical reconstruction of the country and delayed discussion of independence. The [[Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League]] (AFPFL) opposed the government leading to political instability in the country. A rift had also developed in the AFPFL between the [[Communist Party of Burma|communists]] and Aung San together with the socialists over strategy, which led to Than Tun being forced to resign as general secretary in July 1946 and the expulsion of the CPB from the AFPFL the following October.

The surrender of the Japanese brought a military administration to Burma. The British administration sought to try Aung San and other members of the British Indian Army for treason and collaboration with the Japanese.{{cite book | title=The Political Theory of Tyranny in Singapore and Burma | url=https://archive.org/details/politicaltheoryt00mcca | url-access=limited | publisher=Routledge | author=Stephen Mccarthy | year=2006 | page=[https://archive.org/details/politicaltheoryt00mcca/page/n165 153]| isbn=0-415-70186-4}} [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Mountbatten]] knew that a trial was an impossibility considering Aung San's popular appeal. After the war ended, the British governor, [[Colonel (United Kingdom)|Colonel]] [[Reginald Dorman-Smith|Sir Reginald Dorman-Smith]], returned. The restored government established a political programme that focused on the physical reconstruction of the country and delayed discussion of independence. The [[Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League]] (AFPFL) opposed the government leading to political instability in the country. A rift had also developed in the AFPFL between the [[Communist Party of Burma|communists]] and Aung San together with the socialists over strategy, which led to Than Tun being forced to resign as general secretary in July 1946 and the expulsion of the CPB from the AFPFL the following October.