Media context studies (Advertising research)

'''Media context studies''' refers to the group of studies investigating “how and which media context variables influence the effects of the [[advertisements]] embedded in the context“.{{cite journal|last=Bronner|first=A.E.|author2=Neijen, P.C.|title=Audience experiences of media context and embedded advertising: A comparison of eight media|journal=International Journal of Market Research|year=2006|volume=48|pages=81–100|doi=10.1177/147078530604800106|s2cid=166729165}} Media researchers found that media context affects ad recall,{{cite journal|last=De Pelsmacker|first=P.|author2=Geuens, M. |author3=Anckaert, P. |title=Media context and advertising effectiveness: The role of context appreciation and context/ad similarity|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=2002|volume=31|issue=2|pages=49–61|doi=10.1080/00913367.2002.10673666|s2cid=146577308}} ad recognition,{{cite journal|last=Moorman|first=M.|author2=Neijens, P. C. |author3=Smit, E. G. |title=The effects of magazine-induced psychological responses and thematic congruence on memory and attitude toward the ad in a real-life setting|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=2002|volume=31|issue=4|pages=27–40|doi=10.1080/00913367.2002.10673683|s2cid=142575691}} level and nature of ad processing,{{cite journal|last=Shapiro|first=S|author2=MacInnis, D.J.|title=Understanding program-induced mood effects: Decoupling arousal from valence|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=2002|volume=31|issue=4|pages=15–26|doi=10.1080/00913367.2002.10673682|s2cid=144806299}} ad attitude and ad cognitions,{{cite journal|last=Coulter|first=K.S.|title=The effects of affective responses to media context on advertising evaluations.|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=1998|volume=27|issue=4|pages=41–51|doi=10.1080/00913367.1998.10673568}} brand attitude,{{cite journal|last=Lord|first=K.R.|author2=Burnkrant, R. E. |author3=Unnava, H. R. |title=The effects of program-induced mood states on memory for commercial information|journal=Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising|year=2001|volume=23|issue=1|pages=1–15|doi=10.1080/10641734.2001.10505110|s2cid=143902379}} and purchase intention.{{cite journal|last=Yi|first=Y|title=Cognitive and affective priming effects of the context for print advertisements.|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=1990|volume=19|issue=2|pages=40–48|doi=10.1080/00913367.1990.10673186|hdl=2027.42/36288|hdl-access=free}}

'''Media context studies''' refers to the group of studies investigating “how and which media context variables influence the effects of the [[advertisements]] embedded in the context“.{{cite journal|last=Bronner|first=A.E.|author2=Neijen, P.C.|title=Audience experiences of media context and embedded advertising: A comparison of eight media|journal=International Journal of Market Research|year=2006|volume=48|pages=81–100|doi=10.1177/147078530604800106|s2cid=166729165}} Media researchers found that media context affects ad recall,{{cite journal|last=De Pelsmacker|first=P.|author2=Geuens, M. |author3=Anckaert, P. |title=Media context and advertising effectiveness: The role of context appreciation and context/ad similarity|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=2002|volume=31|issue=2|pages=49–61|doi=10.1080/00913367.2002.10673666|s2cid=146577308}} ad recognition,{{cite journal|last=Moorman|first=M.|author2=Neijens, P. C. |author3=Smit, E. G. |title=The effects of magazine-induced psychological responses and thematic congruence on memory and attitude toward the ad in a real-life setting|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=2002|volume=31|issue=4|pages=27–40|doi=10.1080/00913367.2002.10673683|s2cid=142575691}} level and nature of ad processing,{{cite journal|last=Shapiro|first=S|author2=MacInnis, D.J.|title=Understanding program-induced mood effects: Decoupling arousal from valence|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=2002|volume=31|issue=4|pages=15–26|doi=10.1080/00913367.2002.10673682|s2cid=144806299}} ad attitude and ad cognitions,{{cite journal|last=Coulter|first=K.S.|title=The effects of affective responses to media context on advertising evaluations.|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=1998|volume=27|issue=4|pages=41–51|doi=10.1080/00913367.1998.10673568}} brand attitude,{{cite journal|last=Lord|first=K.R.|author2=Burnkrant, R. E. |author3=Unnava, H. R. |title=The effects of program-induced mood states on memory for commercial information|journal=Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising|year=2001|volume=23|issue=1|pages=1–15|doi=10.1080/10641734.2001.10505110|s2cid=143902379}} and purchase intention.{{cite journal|last=Yi|first=Y|title=Cognitive and affective priming effects of the context for print advertisements.|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=1990|volume=19|issue=2|pages=40–48|doi=10.1080/00913367.1990.10673186|hdl=2027.42/36288|hdl-access=free}}

Media context would influence media users’ attitude toward ads in several ways. First, the similarity in the mood of the media context and the ads would enhance learning and evaluations of the ad and its message.{{cite journal|last=Coulter|first=K.S.|title=The effects of affective responses to media context on advertising evaluations.|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=1998|volume=27|issue=4|pages=41–51|doi=10.1080/00913367.1998.10673568}}{{cite journal|last=De Pelsmacker|first=P.|author2=Geuens, M. |author3=Anckaert, P. |title=Media context and advertising effectiveness: The role of context appreciation and context/ad similarity|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=2002|volume=31|issue=2|pages=49–61|doi=10.1080/00913367.2002.10673666|s2cid=146577308}}{{cite journal|last=Lord|first=K.R.|author2=Burnkrant, R. E. |author3=Unnava, H. R. |title=The effects of program-induced mood states on memory for commercial information|journal=Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising|year=2001|volume=23|issue=1|pages=1–15|doi=10.1080/10641734.2001.10505110|s2cid=143902379}} Goldberg and Gorn (1987){{cite journal|last=Goldberg|first=M.E.|author2=Gorn, G. J.|title=Happy and sad TV programs: How they affect reactions to commercials|journal=Journal of Consumer Research|volume=14|issue=3|pages=387|year=1987|doi=10.1086/209122}} call this the mood congruency-accessibility hypothesis: The ad context makes a certain mood or affect more accessible and relieves the processing of stimuli with similar moods or affects. Second, the prestige of the media source would rub off on the brand and influence the perceptions of the advertised brand. Fuchs (1964) {{cite journal|last=Fuchs|first=D. A.|title=Two source effects in magazine advertising|journal=Journal of Marketing Research|year=1964|volume=1|issue=3|pages=59–62|doi=10.2307/3150058|jstor=3150058}} found support for this hypothesis and he called it the congruity principle: the medium and the advertised brand converge and become more similar in consumers’ minds. Third, the media context can serve as a cognitive prime that guides the attention and determines the users’ interpretation of the ads.{{cite journal|last=Dahlén|first=M.|title=The medium as a contextual cue: Effects of creative media choice|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=89–98|doi=10.1080/00913367.2005.10639197|s2cid=145542505}} For instance, a print ad promoting a large car may be interpreted as safe when the context is an [[editorial]] article about safety, or as fuel-thirsty when the context is an editorial article about oil.{{cite journal|last=Yi|first=Y|title=Cognitive and affective priming effects of the context for print advertisements.|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=1990|volume=19|issue=2|pages=40–48|doi=10.1080/00913367.1990.10673186|hdl=2027.42/36288|hdl-access=free}} Forth, the nature of the medium itself may moderate the editorial content’s influence on acceptance of the ads. For example, ads in print media can be skipped more easily compared to ads on radio and television, so the appreciation of the magazine editorial may lead to less ad processing than on radio and television.{{cite journal|last=Norris|first=C.E.|author2=Colman, A. M.|title=Context effects on recall and recognition of magazine advertisements|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=1992|pages=37–46|jstor=4188844|volume=21|issue=3|doi=10.1080/00913367.1992.10673374|hdl=2381/3970|url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/10080809|hdl-access=free}}

Media context would influence media users’ attitude toward ads in several ways. First, the similarity in the mood of the media context and the ads would enhance learning and evaluations of the ad and its message.{{cite journal|last=Coulter|first=K.S.|title=The effects of affective responses to media context on advertising evaluations.|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=1998|volume=27|issue=4|pages=41–51|doi=10.1080/00913367.1998.10673568}}{{cite journal|last=De Pelsmacker|first=P.|author2=Geuens, M. |author3=Anckaert, P. |title=Media context and advertising effectiveness: The role of context appreciation and context/ad similarity|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=2002|volume=31|issue=2|pages=49–61|doi=10.1080/00913367.2002.10673666|s2cid=146577308}}{{cite journal|last=Lord|first=K.R.|author2=Burnkrant, R. E. |author3=Unnava, H. R. |title=The effects of program-induced mood states on memory for commercial information|journal=Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising|year=2001|volume=23|issue=1|pages=1–15|doi=10.1080/10641734.2001.10505110|s2cid=143902379}} Goldberg and Gorn (1987){{cite journal|last=Goldberg|first=M.E.|author2=Gorn, G. J.|title=Happy and sad TV programs: How they affect reactions to commercials|journal=Journal of Consumer Research|volume=14|issue=3|pages=387|year=1987|doi=10.1086/209122}} call this the mood congruency-accessibility hypothesis: The ad context makes a certain mood or affect more accessible and relieves the processing of stimuli with similar moods or affects. Second, the prestige of the media source would rub off on the brand and influence the perceptions of the advertised brand. Fuchs (1964) {{cite journal|last=Fuchs|first=D. A.|title=Two source effects in magazine advertising|journal=Journal of Marketing Research|year=1964|volume=1|issue=3|pages=59–62|doi=10.2307/3150058|jstor=3150058}} found support for this hypothesis and he called it the congruity principle: the medium and the advertised brand converge and become more similar in consumers’ minds. Third, the media context can serve as a cognitive prime that guides the attention and determines the users’ interpretation of the ads.{{cite journal|last=Dahlén|first=M.|title=The medium as a contextual cue: Effects of creative media choice|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=89–98|doi=10.1080/00913367.2005.10639197|s2cid=145542505}} For instance, a print ad promoting a large car may be interpreted as safe when the context is an [[editorial]] article about safety, or as fuel-thirsty when the context is an editorial article about oil.{{cite journal|last=Yi|first=Y|title=Cognitive and affective priming effects of the context for print advertisements.|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=1990|volume=19|issue=2|pages=40–48|doi=10.1080/00913367.1990.10673186|hdl=2027.42/36288|hdl-access=free}} Forth, the nature of the medium itself may moderate the editorial content’s influence on acceptance of the ads. For example, ads in print media can be skipped more easily compared to ads on radio and television, so the appreciation of the magazine editorial may lead to less ad processing than on radio and television.{{cite journal|last=Norris|first=C.E.|author2=Colman, A. M.|title=Context effects on recall and recognition of magazine advertisements|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=1992|pages=37–46|jstor=4188844|volume=21|issue=3|doi=10.1080/00913367.1992.10673374|hdl=2381/3970|url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/10080809|hdl-access=free}}

While the influence of media context on embedded ads undoubtedly exists and is important, it is complicated and difficult to evaluate. The related theories may be conflicting in this regard. For example, the Feelings-as-information Theory suggested that people in a positive mood tend to avoid stimuli such as ads.{{cite journal|last=Kuykendall|first=D.|author2=Keating, J. P.|title=Mood and persuasion: Evidence for the differential influence of positive and negative states.|journal=Psychology & Marketing|year=1990|volume=7|issue=1|pages=1–9|doi=10.1002/mar.4220070102}} If people acquire a good mood as a result of processing media content, they may avoid paying attention to ads embedded in this context and process them less intensively. However, the Hedonic Contingency view stated that people in a positive mood may engage in greater processing of a stimulus because they believe that the consequences are going to be favorable.{{cite journal|last=Lee|first=A.Y.|author2=Sternthal, B.|title=The effects of positive mood on memory|journal=Journal of Consumer Research|year=1999|volume=26|issue=2|pages=115–127|doi=10.1086/209554}} Given the complexity of the issue, a framework of media context effect on advertising response is demanded. One such endeavor is conceptualizing media engagement as an antecedent of the attitude toward the embedded advertisements.{{cite journal|last=Calder|first=B. J. |author2=Malthouse,E.C. |author3=Schaedel, U.|title=An experimental study of the relationship between online engagement and advertising effectiveness|journal=Journal of Interactive Marketing|volume=23|issue=4|pages=321–331|doi=10.1016/j.intmar.2009.07.002|year=2009 |s2cid=55642168 }}{{cite journal|last=Dahlén|first=M|title=The medium as a contextual cue: Effects of creative media choice.|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=89–98|doi=10.1080/00913367.2005.10639197|s2cid=145542505}}{{cite journal|last=Bronner|first=A.E.|author2=Neijens, P. C.|title=Audience experiences of media context and embedded advertising: A comparison of eight media|journal=International Journal of Market Research|year=2006|volume=48|pages=81–100|doi=10.1177/147078530604800106|s2cid=166729165}}

While the influence of media context on embedded ads undoubtedly exists and is important, it is complicated and difficult to evaluate. The related theories may be conflicting in this regard. For example, the Feelings-as-information Theory suggested that people in a positive mood tend to avoid stimuli such as ads.{{cite journal|last=Kuykendall|first=D.|author2=Keating, J. P.|title=Mood and persuasion: Evidence for the differential influence of positive and negative states.|journal=Psychology & Marketing|year=1990|volume=7|issue=1|pages=1–9|doi=10.1002/mar.4220070102}} If people acquire a good mood as a result of processing media content, they may avoid paying attention to ads embedded in this context and process them less intensively. However, the Hedonic Contingency view stated that people in a positive mood may engage in greater processing of a stimulus because they believe that the consequences are going to be favorable.{{cite journal|last=Lee|first=A.Y.|author2=Sternthal, B.|title=The effects of positive mood on memory|journal=Journal of Consumer Research|year=1999|volume=26|issue=2|pages=115–127|doi=10.1086/209554}} Given the complexity of the issue, a framework of media context effect on advertising response is demanded. One such endeavor is conceptualizing media engagement as an antecedent of the attitude toward the embedded advertisements.{{cite journal|last=Calder|first=B. J. |author2=Malthouse, E.C. |author3=Schaedel, U.|title=An experimental study of the relationship between online engagement and advertising effectiveness|journal=Journal of Interactive Marketing|volume=23|issue=4|pages=321–331|doi=10.1016/j.intmar.2009.07.002|year=2009 |s2cid=55642168 }}{{cite journal|last=Dahlén|first=M|title=The medium as a contextual cue: Effects of creative media choice.|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=89–98|doi=10.1080/00913367.2005.10639197|s2cid=145542505}}{{cite journal|last=Bronner|first=A.E.|author2=Neijens, P. C.|title=Audience experiences of media context and embedded advertising: A comparison of eight media|journal=International Journal of Market Research|year=2006|volume=48|pages=81–100|doi=10.1177/147078530604800106|s2cid=166729165}}

This approach attempts to connect U&G perspective to studies media context effects on users’ attitude toward ads. Researchers conceptualized different attributes of individual media users as media engagement and posited that it serves as an antecedent of the attitude toward the embedded advertisements.{{cite journal|last=Calder|first=B. J. |author2=Malthouse,E.C. |author3=Schaedel, U.|title=An experimental study of the relationship between online engagement and advertising effectiveness|journal=Journal of Interactive Marketing|volume=23|issue=4|pages=321–331|doi=10.1016/j.intmar.2009.07.002|year=2009 |s2cid=55642168 }}{{cite journal|last=Dahlén|first=M|title=The medium as a contextual cue: Effects of creative media choice.|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=89–98|doi=10.1080/00913367.2005.10639197|s2cid=145542505}}{{cite journal|last=Bronner|first=A.E.|author2=Neijens, P. C.|title=Audience experiences of media context and embedded advertising: A comparison of eight media|journal=International Journal of Market Research|year=2006|volume=48|pages=81–100|doi=10.1177/147078530604800106|s2cid=166729165}} Initially, scholars used the term experience to refer to these influential factors when relating to how media use would influence advertisement acceptance. Experience was described as “an emotional, intuitive perception that people have while using the media” {{cite journal|last=Calder|first=B. J.|author2=Malthouse, E. C. |author3=Schaedel, U. |title=An experimental study of the relationship between online engagement and advertising effectiveness|journal=Journal of Interactive Marketing|year=2009|volume=23|issue=4|pages=321–331|doi=10.1016/j.intmar.2009.07.002|s2cid=55642168}} (p. 84). Calder and Malthouse (2009){{cite journal|last=Calder|first=B. J.|author2=Malthouse, E. C. |author3=Schaedel, U. |title=An experimental study of the relationship between online engagement and advertising effectiveness|journal=Journal of Interactive Marketing|year=2009|volume=23|issue=4|pages=321–331|doi=10.1016/j.intmar.2009.07.002|s2cid=55642168}} defined media experience as “the thoughts and feelings consumers have about what is happening when they are doing something” in or with media (p. 257). For example, users have a utilitarian experience when they believe a website provides information that facilitates their decision making. They have an intrinsically enjoyable experience when other content enables them to escape from the pressures of daily life. Calder and Malthouse (2009) described experience as consisting of two dimensions: the hedonic value associated with the experience and the motivational component, which is posited as engagement. Hence, the engagement is conceptualized as “the sum of the motivational experiences consumers have with the media product” (p. 259), which affects the strength of media experience. It influences people’s reaction to advertisements because the strong motivational experiences consumers have with a media vehicle would make an ad potentially part of something that consumers are trying to make happen in their life.

This approach attempts to connect U&G perspective to studies media context effects on users’ attitude toward ads. Researchers conceptualized different attributes of individual media users as media engagement and posited that it serves as an antecedent of the attitude toward the embedded advertisements.{{cite journal|last=Calder|first=B. J. |author2=Malthouse, E.C. |author3=Schaedel, U.|title=An experimental study of the relationship between online engagement and advertising effectiveness|journal=Journal of Interactive Marketing|volume=23|issue=4|pages=321–331|doi=10.1016/j.intmar.2009.07.002|year=2009 |s2cid=55642168 }}{{cite journal|last=Dahlén|first=M|title=The medium as a contextual cue: Effects of creative media choice.|journal=Journal of Advertising|year=2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=89–98|doi=10.1080/00913367.2005.10639197|s2cid=145542505}}{{cite journal|last=Bronner|first=A.E.|author2=Neijens, P. C.|title=Audience experiences of media context and embedded advertising: A comparison of eight media|journal=International Journal of Market Research|year=2006|volume=48|pages=81–100|doi=10.1177/147078530604800106|s2cid=166729165}} Initially, scholars used the term experience to refer to these influential factors when relating to how media use would influence advertisement acceptance. Experience was described as “an emotional, intuitive perception that people have while using the media” {{cite journal|last=Calder|first=B. J.|author2=Malthouse, E. C. |author3=Schaedel, U. |title=An experimental study of the relationship between online engagement and advertising effectiveness|journal=Journal of Interactive Marketing|year=2009|volume=23|issue=4|pages=321–331|doi=10.1016/j.intmar.2009.07.002|s2cid=55642168}} (p. 84). Calder and Malthouse (2009){{cite journal|last=Calder|first=B. J.|author2=Malthouse, E. C. |author3=Schaedel, U. |title=An experimental study of the relationship between online engagement and advertising effectiveness|journal=Journal of Interactive Marketing|year=2009|volume=23|issue=4|pages=321–331|doi=10.1016/j.intmar.2009.07.002|s2cid=55642168}} defined media experience as “the thoughts and feelings consumers have about what is happening when they are doing something” in or with media (p. 257). For example, users have a utilitarian experience when they believe a website provides information that facilitates their decision making. They have an intrinsically enjoyable experience when other content enables them to escape from the pressures of daily life. Calder and Malthouse (2009) described experience as consisting of two dimensions: the hedonic value associated with the experience and the motivational component, which is posited as engagement. Hence, the engagement is conceptualized as “the sum of the motivational experiences consumers have with the media product” (p. 259), which affects the strength of media experience. It influences people’s reaction to advertisements because the strong motivational experiences consumers have with a media vehicle would make an ad potentially part of something that consumers are trying to make happen in their life.

Scholars have tested the relationship between media engagement and advertising effectiveness and suggested that all things being equal, if consumers engaging with a media vehicle have strong motivational experiences, an ad potentially becomes more effective on this medium as well. Based on this argument Calder and Malthouse (2006){{cite journal|last=Calder|first=B.J.|author2=Malthouse, E. C.|title=Managing media and advertising change with integrated marketing|journal=Journal of Advertising Research|year=2005|volume=45|issue=4|pages=356|doi=10.1017/s0021849905050427|s2cid=167728602}} proposed a media congruency hypothesis and tested it empirically with magazine ads, with positive results. With the emergence of the Internet, Calder, Malthouse and Schaedel (2009) {{cite journal|last=Calder|first=B. J.|author2=Malthouse, E. C. |author3=Schaedel, U. |title=An experimental study of the relationship between online engagement and advertising effectiveness|journal=Journal of Interactive Marketing|year=2009|volume=23|issue=4|pages=321–331|doi=10.1016/j.intmar.2009.07.002|s2cid=55642168}} tested it in Website context and also got supportive results. The experiment yielded a positive correlation between Web users’ engagement with Websites and reaction toward an [[Orbitz]] (an online travel agency) ad. This study showed both overall engagement and personal and social interactive engagement affected reaction to ads, while social interactive engagement was more uniquely attributed to online media having an independent effect on ad reaction.

Scholars have tested the relationship between media engagement and advertising effectiveness and suggested that all things being equal, if consumers engaging with a media vehicle have strong motivational experiences, an ad potentially becomes more effective on this medium as well. Based on this argument Calder and Malthouse (2006){{cite journal|last=Calder|first=B.J.|author2=Malthouse, E. C.|title=Managing media and advertising change with integrated marketing|journal=Journal of Advertising Research|year=2005|volume=45|issue=4|pages=356|doi=10.1017/s0021849905050427|s2cid=167728602}} proposed a media congruency hypothesis and tested it empirically with magazine ads, with positive results. With the emergence of the Internet, Calder, Malthouse and Schaedel (2009) {{cite journal|last=Calder|first=B. J.|author2=Malthouse, E. C. |author3=Schaedel, U. |title=An experimental study of the relationship between online engagement and advertising effectiveness|journal=Journal of Interactive Marketing|year=2009|volume=23|issue=4|pages=321–331|doi=10.1016/j.intmar.2009.07.002|s2cid=55642168}} tested it in Website context and also got supportive results. The experiment yielded a positive correlation between Web users’ engagement with Websites and reaction toward an [[Orbitz]] (an online travel agency) ad. This study showed both overall engagement and personal and social interactive engagement affected reaction to ads, while social interactive engagement was more uniquely attributed to online media having an independent effect on ad reaction.