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However, the island's Muslims were faced with the choice of voluntary departure or subjection to Christian rule. The Muslims who could leave, apparently did so, seeking refuge in [[North Africa]]. The rest were forced to live under Christian overlordship, but they lived confined in an inner territory of western Sicily, in the area ranging from Palermo to Agrigento.[{{Cite book |last=Ferlisi |first=Calogero |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e8cnmWsosc0C&dq=federico+II+pulizia+etnica+di+musulmani&pg=PA98 |title=Il breviario miniato dei Carmelitani di Sutera |date=2004 |publisher=Officina di Studi Medievali |isbn=978-88-88615-50-9 |language=it}}][[https://web.archive.org/web/20100821054137/http://www.cliohres.net/books/3/Dalli.pdf Charles Dalli, From Islam to Christianity: the Case of Sicily, p. 159] (archived link)][Abulafia, The end of Muslim Sicily cit., p. 109] Some Muslims chose to feign conversion and even adopted Greek Christian names, but such a remedy could only provide individual protection and could not sustain a community. The new Roman Catholic monarchs gradually replaced Orthodox clergy with Latin clerics.[[https://web.archive.org/web/20100821054137/http://www.cliohres.net/books/3/Dalli.pdf Charles Dalli, ''From Islam to Christianity: the Case of Sicily'', p. 159] (archived link)][J. Johns, The Greek church and the conversion of Muslims in Norman Sicily?, "Byzantinische Forschungen", 21, 1995; for Greek Christianity in Sicily see also V. von Falkenhausen, "Il monachesimo greco in Sicilia", in C.D. Fonseca (ed.), ''La Sicilia rupestre nel contesto delle civiltà mediterranee'', vol. 1, Lecce 1986.] The Normans also followed a policy of steady Latinization by bringing in hundreds of thousands of Lombard immigrants from mainland Italy and France.[{{cite web |last=Società Siciliana per la Storia Patria. Archivio Storico Siciliano |date=12 December 1876 |title=Archivio Storico Siciliano |url=https://archive.org/details/archiviostoricos24soci |access-date=12 December 2017 |publisher=Palermo |via=Internet Archive}}][{{cite book |last=Barone |first=Francesco |title=L'Islam in Europa tra passato e futuro |publisher=Pellegrini Editore |year=2003 |isbn=88-8101-159-X |editor-last1=Di Bella |editor-first1=Saverio |location=Cosenza |page=104 |chapter=Islām in Sicilia nel XII e XIII secolo: ortoprassi, scienze religiose e tasawwuf |editor-last2=Tomasello |editor-first2=Dario}}][[https://web.archive.org/web/20100821054137/http://www.cliohres.net/books/3/Dalli.pdf Charles Dalli, From Islam to Christianity: the Case of Sicily, p. 160] (archived link)][{{cite web |title=History and etymology of Aidone and Morgantina |url=http://www.italythisway.com/places/articles/aidone-morgantina-history.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105070045/http://www.italythisway.com/places/articles/aidone-morgantina-history.php |archive-date=5 November 2012 |access-date=22 September 2012 |publisher=Italy This Way}}] Before them, other ''Lombards'' arrived in [[Sicily]], with an expedition departed in 1038, led by the Byzantine commander [[George Maniakes]],[Jules Gay, ''L'Italie meridionale et l'empire Byzantin'', Parigi 1904, vol. II, p. 450-453.] which for a very short time managed to snatch Messina and [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]] from [[Arab]] rule. The Lombards who arrived with the Byzantines settled in [[Maniace]], [[Randazzo]] and [[Troina]], while a group of [[Genoa|Genoese]] and other ''Lombards'' from Liguria settled in [[Caltagirone]].[David Abulafia, ''Le due Italie: relazioni economiche fra il regno normanno di Sicilia e i comuni settentrionali'', Cambridge University Press 1977 (trad. it. Guida Editori, Napoli 1991), p. 114.] After the marriage between the Norman [[Roger I of Sicily]] and [[Adelaide del Vasto]], descendant of the [[Aleramici]] family, many Northern Italian colonisers (known collectively as ''Lombards'') left their homeland, in the Aleramici's possessions in [[Piedmont]] and [[Liguria]] (then known as ''Lombardy''), to settle on the island of Sicily.[{{cite journal |last1=Loud |first1=G. A. |last2=Metcalfe |first2=Alex |date=2002 |title=Following the marriage to his third wife, Adelaide, from the Aleramici clan in Piedmont, many northern Italians (the sources refer to them as lombardi, as opposed to the longobardi from southern Italy) settled on the island of Sicily from the late Eleventh century onwards. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1IBspuVRwnUC&pg=PA323 |url-status=live |journal=The Society of Norman Italy |publisher=Brill, Leiden |page=323 |isbn=90-04-12541-8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610135950/https://books.google.com/books?id=1IBspuVRwnUC&pg=PA323 |archive-date=10 June 2016 |access-date=12 December 2015}}][These Lombard colonisers were natives from Northern Italy and should not be confused with the [[Lombards|Lombard]] Germanic tribe, who were referred to as ''Longobardi'' to distinguish them from the locals of the region who were known as ''Lombardi''.] [[File:Arabo-NormanArchitecture.JPG|thumb|[[Arab-Norman culture|Arab-Norman]] art and architecture combined European and [[Classical architecture|Classical]] features with [[Islamic architecture|Islamic architectural]] features such as ''[[muqarnas]]'']] |
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However, the island's Muslims were faced with the choice of voluntary departure or subjection to Christian rule. The Muslims who could leave, apparently did so, seeking refuge in [[North Africa]]. The rest were forced to live under Christian overlordship, but they lived confined in an inner territory of western Sicily, in the area ranging from Palermo to Agrigento.[{{Cite book |last=Ferlisi |first=Calogero |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e8cnmWsosc0C&dq=federico+II+pulizia+etnica+di+musulmani&pg=PA98 |title=Il breviario miniato dei Carmelitani di Sutera |date=2004 |publisher=Officina di Studi Medievali |isbn=978-88-88615-50-9 |language=it}}][[https://web.archive.org/web/20100821054137/http://www.cliohres.net/books/3/Dalli.pdf Charles Dalli, From Islam to Christianity: the Case of Sicily, p. 159] (archived link)][Abulafia, The end of Muslim Sicily cit., p. 109] Some Muslims chose to feign conversion and even adopted Greek Christian names, but such a remedy could only provide individual protection and could not sustain a community. The new Roman Catholic monarchs gradually replaced Orthodox clergy with Latin clerics.[[https://web.archive.org/web/20100821054137/http://www.cliohres.net/books/3/Dalli.pdf Charles Dalli, ''From Islam to Christianity: the Case of Sicily'', p. 159] (archived link)][J. Johns, The Greek church and the conversion of Muslims in Norman Sicily?, "Byzantinische Forschungen", 21, 1995; for Greek Christianity in Sicily see also V. von Falkenhausen, "Il monachesimo greco in Sicilia", in C.D. Fonseca (ed.), ''La Sicilia rupestre nel contesto delle civiltà mediterranee'', vol. 1, Lecce 1986.] The Normans also followed a policy of steady Latinization by bringing in hundreds of thousands of Lombard immigrants from mainland Italy and France.[{{cite web |last=Società Siciliana per la Storia Patria. Archivio Storico Siciliano |date=12 December 1876 |title=Archivio Storico Siciliano |url=https://archive.org/details/archiviostoricos24soci |access-date=12 December 2017 |publisher=Palermo |via=Internet Archive}}][{{cite book |last=Barone |first=Francesco |title=L'Islam in Europa tra passato e futuro |publisher=Pellegrini Editore |year=2003 |isbn=88-8101-159-X |editor-last1=Di Bella |editor-first1=Saverio |location=Cosenza |page=104 |chapter=Islām in Sicilia nel XII e XIII secolo: ortoprassi, scienze religiose e tasawwuf |editor-last2=Tomasello |editor-first2=Dario}}][[https://web.archive.org/web/20100821054137/http://www.cliohres.net/books/3/Dalli.pdf Charles Dalli, From Islam to Christianity: the Case of Sicily, p. 160] (archived link)][{{cite web |title=History and etymology of Aidone and Morgantina |url=http://www.italythisway.com/places/articles/aidone-morgantina-history.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105070045/http://www.italythisway.com/places/articles/aidone-morgantina-history.php |archive-date=5 November 2012 |access-date=22 September 2012 |publisher=Italy This Way}}] Before them, other ''Lombards'' arrived in [[Sicily]], with an expedition departed in 1038, led by the Byzantine commander [[George Maniakes]],[Jules Gay, ''L'Italie meridionale et l'empire Byzantin'', Parigi 1904, vol. II, p. 450-453.] which for a very short time managed to snatch Messina and [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]] from [[Arab]] rule. The Lombards who arrived with the Byzantines settled in [[Maniace]], [[Randazzo]] and [[Troina]], while a group of [[Genoa|Genoese]] and other ''Lombards'' from Liguria settled in [[Caltagirone]].[David Abulafia, ''Le due Italie: relazioni economiche fra il regno normanno di Sicilia e i comuni settentrionali'', Cambridge University Press 1977 (trad. it. Guida Editori, Napoli 1991), p. 114.] After the marriage between the Norman [[Roger I of Sicily]] and [[Adelaide del Vasto]], descendant of the [[Aleramici]] family, many Northern Italian colonisers (known collectively as ''Lombards'') left their homeland, in the Aleramici's possessions in [[Piedmont]] and [[Liguria]] (then known as ''Lombardy''), to settle on the island of Sicily.[{{cite journal |last1=Loud |first1=G. A. |last2=Metcalfe |first2=Alex |date=2002 |title=Following the marriage to his third wife, Adelaide, from the Aleramici clan in Piedmont, many northern Italians (the sources refer to them as lombardi, as opposed to the longobardi from southern Italy) settled on the island of Sicily from the late Eleventh century onwards. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1IBspuVRwnUC&pg=PA323 |url-status=live |journal=The Society of Norman Italy |publisher=Brill, Leiden |page=323 |isbn=90-04-12541-8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610135950/https://books.google.com/books?id=1IBspuVRwnUC&pg=PA323 |archive-date=10 June 2016 |access-date=12 December 2015}}][These Lombard colonisers were natives from Northern Italy and should not be confused with the [[Lombards|Lombard]] Germanic tribe, who were referred to as ''Longobardi'' to distinguish them from the locals of the region who were known as ''Lombardi''.] [[File:Arabo-NormanArchitecture.JPG|thumb|[[Arab-Norman culture|Arab-Norman]] art and architecture combined European and [[Classical architecture|Classical]] features with [[Islamic architecture|Islamic architectural]] features such as ''[[muqarnas]]'']] |
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Lombard [[pogrom]]s against Muslims started in the 1160s. Muslim and Christian communities in Sicily became increasingly geographically separated. The island's Muslim communities were mainly isolated beyond an internal frontier that divided the south and western half of the island from the Christian north and eastern half; in particular, the northeast region of [[Val Demone]] had remained predominantly [[Byzantine Greek]] and Christian, even during Islamic rule.[{{cite book |author1=Alex Metcalfe |title=The Muslims of Medieval Italy |date=2009 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-2008-1 |edition=illustrated |page=142}}][{{cite book |author1=Michele Amari |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_1B0YAAAAYAAJ |title=Storia dei musulmani di Sicilia |date=1854 |publisher=F. Le Monnier |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_1B0YAAAAYAAJ/page/n424 302] Vol III}}][{{cite book |author1=Roberto Tottoli |title=Routledge Handbook of Islam in the West |date=19 Sep 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-74402-3 |page=56}}][{{cite book |author1=Graham A. Loud |title=The Society of Norman Italy |author2=Alex Metcalfe |date=1 Jan 2002 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-12541-4 |edition=illustrated |page=289}}][{{cite book |author1=Jeremy Johns |title=Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily: The Royal Diwan |date=7 Oct 2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-44019-6 |page=284}}][Metcalfe (2009), pp. 34–36, 40][{{cite book |author=Loud, G. A. |title=The Latin Church in Norman Italy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-25551-6 |page=494 |quote=At the end of the twelfth century ... While in Apulia Greeks were in a majority–and indeed present in any numbers at all–only in the Salento peninsula in the extreme south, at the time of the conquest they had an overwhelming preponderance in Lucaina and central and southern Calabria, as well as comprising anything up to a third of the population of Sicily, concentrated especially in the north-east of the island, the Val Demone.}}] As a subject people, Sicilian Muslims became dependent on the mercy of their Christian masters and, ultimately, on royal protection. After [[William II of Sicily|King William the Good]] died in 1189, royal protection was lifted, and the door was opened for widespread attacks against the island's Muslims. This destroyed any lingering hope of coexistence, however unequal the respective populations might have been. The death of [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI]] and his wife [[Constance I of Sicily|Constance]] a year later plunged Sicily into political turmoil. With the loss of royal protection and with [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] still an infant in papal custody, Sicily became a battleground for rival German and papal forces. The island's Muslim rebels sided with German warlords like [[Markward von Anweiler]]. In response, [[Pope Innocent III]] declared a crusade against Markward, alleging that he had made an unholy alliance with the Saracens of Sicily. Nevertheless, in 1206 Innocent III had attempted to convince Muslim leaders to remain loyal.[[https://web.archive.org/web/20100821054137/http://www.cliohres.net/books/3/Dalli.pdf Charles Dalli, From Islam to Christianity: the Case of Sicily, p. 160-161] (archived link)] By this time, the Muslim rebellion was in full swing. They were in control of Jato, Entella, Platani, Celso, Calatrasi, Corleone (taken in 1208), Guastanella and Cinisi. Muslim revolt extended throughout a whole stretch of western Sicily. The rebels were led by Muhammad Ibn Abbād. He called himself the "[[amir al-mu'minin|prince of believers]]", struck his own coins, and attempted to find Muslim support from other parts of the Muslim world.[[https://web.archive.org/web/20100821054137/http://www.cliohres.net/books/3/Dalli.pdf Charles Dalli, From Islam to Christianity: the Case of Sicily, p. 161] (archived link)][{{cite book|first=Pierre|last=Aubé|title=Roger Ii De Sicile - Un Normand En Méditerranée|publisher=Payot|year=2001}}] |
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Lombard [[pogrom]]s against Muslims started in the 1160s. Muslim and Christian communities in Sicily became increasingly geographically separated. The island's Muslim communities were mainly isolated beyond an internal frontier that divided the south and western half of the island from the Christian north and eastern half; in particular, the northeast region of [[Val Demone]] had remained predominantly [[Byzantine Greek]] and Christian, even during Islamic rule.[{{cite book |author1=Alex Metcalfe |title=The Muslims of Medieval Italy |date=2009 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-2008-1 |edition=illustrated |page=142}}][{{cite book |author1=Michele Amari |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_1B0YAAAAYAAJ |title=Storia dei musulmani di Sicilia |date=1854 |publisher=F. Le Monnier |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_1B0YAAAAYAAJ/page/n424 302] Vol III}}][{{cite book |author1=Roberto Tottoli |title=Routledge Handbook of Islam in the West |date=19 Sep 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-74402-3 |page=56}}][{{cite book |author1=Graham A. Loud |title=The Society of Norman Italy |author2=Alex Metcalfe |date=1 Jan 2002 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-12541-4 |edition=illustrated |page=289}}][{{cite book |author1=Jeremy Johns |title=Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily: The Royal Diwan |date=7 Oct 2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-44019-6 |page=284}}][Metcalfe (2009), pp. 34–36, 40][{{cite book |author=Loud, G. A. |title=The Latin Church in Norman Italy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-25551-6 |page=494 |quote=At the end of the twelfth century ... While in Apulia Greeks were in a majority–and indeed present in any numbers at all–only in the Salento peninsula in the extreme south, at the time of the conquest they had an overwhelming preponderance in Lucaina and central and southern Calabria, as well as comprising anything up to a third of the population of Sicily, concentrated especially in the north-east of the island, the Val Demone.}}] As a subject people, Sicilian Muslims became dependent on the mercy of their Christian masters and, ultimately, on royal protection. After [[William II of Sicily|King William the Good]] died in 1189, royal protection was lifted, and the door was opened for widespread attacks against the island's Muslims. This destroyed any lingering hope of coexistence, however unequal the respective populations might have been. The death of [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI]] and his wife [[Constance I of Sicily|Constance]] a year later plunged Sicily into political turmoil. With the loss of royal protection and with [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] still an infant in papal custody, Sicily became a battleground for rival [[Germans|German]] and [[Papal States|papal forces]]. The island's Muslim rebels sided with German warlords like [[Markward von Anweiler]]. In response, [[Pope Innocent III]] declared a crusade against Markward, alleging that he had made an unholy alliance with the Saracens of Sicily. Nevertheless, in 1206 Innocent III had attempted to convince Muslim leaders to remain loyal.[[https://web.archive.org/web/20100821054137/http://www.cliohres.net/books/3/Dalli.pdf Charles Dalli, From Islam to Christianity: the Case of Sicily, p. 160-161] (archived link)] By this time, the Muslim rebellion was in full swing. They were in control of Jato, Entella, Platani, Celso, Calatrasi, Corleone (taken in 1208), Guastanella and Cinisi. Muslim revolt extended throughout a whole stretch of western Sicily. The rebels were led by Muhammad Ibn Abbād. He called himself the "[[amir al-mu'minin|prince of believers]]", struck his own coins, and attempted to find Muslim support from other parts of the Muslim world.[[https://web.archive.org/web/20100821054137/http://www.cliohres.net/books/3/Dalli.pdf Charles Dalli, From Islam to Christianity: the Case of Sicily, p. 161] (archived link)][{{cite book|first=Pierre|last=Aubé|title=Roger Ii De Sicile - Un Normand En Méditerranée|publisher=Payot|year=2001}}] |
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However, Frederick II, no longer a child, responded by launching a series of military campaigns against the Muslim rebels in 1221. The [[Hohenstaufen]] forces rooted out the defenders of Jato, Entella, and the other fortresses. Rather than exterminate the Muslims. who numbered about 60,000, in 1223, Frederick II began deporting them to [[Lucera]] in Apulia, where many were enslaved to farm lands and perform domestic labor.[A.Lowe: The Barrier and the bridge, op cit;p.92.][{{Cite journal |last=Taylor |first=Julie Anne |date=2007-04-01 |title=Freedom and Bondage among Muslims in Southern Italy during the Thirteenth Century |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13602000701308889 |journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=71–77 |doi=10.1080/13602000701308889 |issn=1360-2004 |s2cid=216117913 |url-access=subscription}}][{{Cite web |title=MONREALE in "Federiciana" |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/monreale_(Federiciana) |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=www.treccani.it |language=it-IT}}][{{Cite web |title=SARACENI DI SICILIA in "Federiciana" |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/saraceni-di-sicilia_(Federiciana) |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=www.treccani.it |language=it-IT}}] A year later, expeditions were sent against [[Malta]] and [[Djerba]], to establish royal control and prevent their Muslim populations from helping the rebels.[{{Cite web|date=2007-11-28|title=Saracen Archers in Southern Italy|url=http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/articles/saracen_archers.htm|access-date=2021-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128110352/http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/articles/saracen_archers.htm|archive-date=2007-11-28}}] |
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However, Frederick II, no longer a child, responded by launching a series of military campaigns against the Muslim rebels in 1221. The [[Hohenstaufen]] forces rooted out the defenders of Jato, Entella, and the other fortresses. Rather than exterminate the Muslims. who numbered about 60,000, in 1223, Frederick II began deporting them to [[Lucera]] in Apulia, where many were enslaved to farm lands and perform domestic labor.[A.Lowe: The Barrier and the bridge, op cit;p.92.][{{Cite journal |last=Taylor |first=Julie Anne |date=2007-04-01 |title=Freedom and Bondage among Muslims in Southern Italy during the Thirteenth Century |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13602000701308889 |journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=71–77 |doi=10.1080/13602000701308889 |issn=1360-2004 |s2cid=216117913 |url-access=subscription}}][{{Cite web |title=MONREALE in "Federiciana" |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/monreale_(Federiciana) |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=www.treccani.it |language=it-IT}}][{{Cite web |title=SARACENI DI SICILIA in "Federiciana" |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/saraceni-di-sicilia_(Federiciana) |access-date=2022-12-15 |website=www.treccani.it |language=it-IT}}] A year later, expeditions were sent against [[Malta]] and [[Djerba]], to establish royal control and prevent their Muslim populations from helping the rebels.[{{Cite web|date=2007-11-28|title=Saracen Archers in Southern Italy|url=http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/articles/saracen_archers.htm|access-date=2021-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128110352/http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/articles/saracen_archers.htm|archive-date=2007-11-28}}] |
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