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'''Transcendental Meditation''' ('''TM''') is a form of silent [[meditation]] developed by [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]]. The [[Transcendental Meditation technique |TM technique]] involves the silent repetition of a ''[[mantra]]'' or sound, and is practiced for 15–20 minutes twice per day. It is taught through a standard course of instruction, with a cost which varies by country and individual circumstance. According to the TM organization, it is a non-religious method that promotes relaxed [[awareness]], [[stress relief]], self-development, and [[higher consciousness |higher states of consciousness]]. |
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'''Transcendental Meditation''' ('''TM''') is a form of silent [[meditation]] developed by [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]]. The [[Transcendental Meditation technique |TM technique]] involves the silent repetition of a ''[[mantra]]'' or sound, and is practiced for 15–20 minutes twice per day. It is taught through a standard course of instruction, with a cost which varies by country and individual circumstance. According to the TM organization, it is a non-religious method that promotes relaxed [[awareness]], [[stress relief]], self-development, and [[higher consciousness |higher states of consciousness]]. |
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Maharishi began teaching the technique in India in the mid-1950s.[{{cite book |editor1-last=Cowan |editor1-first=Douglas E. |editor2-last=Bromley |editor2-first=David G. |editor2-link=David G. Bromley |year=2015 |orig-date=2007 |chapter=Transcendental Meditation: The Questions of Science and Therapy |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_xgBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 |title=Cults and New Religions: A Brief History |location=Chichester, West Sussex |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |edition=2nd |series=Blackwell Brief Histories of Religion |pages=38–58 |isbn=978-1-118-72350-0 |lccn=2015005385}}] Building on the teachings of his master, the [[Advaita Vedanta]] monk [[Brahmananda Saraswati]] (known honorifically as Guru Dev), the Maharishi taught thousands of people during a series of world tours from 1958 to 1965, expressing his teachings in spiritual and religious terms.[{{cite book |last=Dawson |first=Lorne |year=2003 |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |title=Cults and New Religious Movements |url=https://archive.org/details/cultsnewreligiou00daws |url-access=limited |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |page=[https://archive.org/details/cultsnewreligiou00daws/page/n61 54] |isbn=978-1-4051-4349-3 }}] TM became more popular in the 1960s and 1970s as the Maharishi shifted to a more secular presentation, and his meditation technique was practiced by celebrities, most prominently members of [[the Beatles]] and [[the Beach Boys]]. At this time, he began training TM teachers. The worldwide TM [[organization]] grew to include educational programs, health products, and related services. Following the Maharishi's death in 2008, leadership of the TM organization passed to [[neuroscientist]] [[Tony Nader]]. Related organizations such as the [[Global Country of World Peace]] and the [[David Lynch Foundation]] have promoted TM. |
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Maharishi began teaching the technique in India in the mid-1950s.[{{cite book |editor1-last=Cowan |editor1-first=Douglas E. |editor2-last=Bromley |editor2-first=David G. |editor2-link=David G. Bromley |year=2015 |orig-date=2007 |chapter=Transcendental Meditation: The Questions of Science and Therapy |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_xgBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 |title=Cults and New Religions: A Brief History |location=Chichester, West Sussex |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |edition=2nd |series=Blackwell Brief Histories of Religion |pages=38–58 |isbn=978-1-118-72350-0 |lccn=2015005385}}] Building on the teachings of his master, the [[Advaita Vedanta]] monk [[Brahmananda Saraswati]] (known honorifically as Guru Dev), the Maharishi taught thousands of people during a series of world tours from 1958 to 1965, expressing his teachings in spiritual and religious terms.[{{cite book |last=Dawson |first=Lorne |year=2003 |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |title=Cults and New Religious Movements |url=https://archive.org/details/cultsnewreligiou00daws |url-access=limited |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |page=[https://archive.org/details/cultsnewreligiou00daws/page/n61 54] |isbn=978-1-4051-4349-3 }}] TM became more popular in the 1960s and 1970s as the Maharishi shifted to a more secular presentation, and his meditation technique was practiced by celebrities, most prominently members of [[the Beatles]] and [[the Beach Boys]]. At this time, he began training TM teachers. The worldwide TM [[organization]] grew to include educational programs, health products, and related services. Following the Maharishi's death in 2008, leadership of the TM organization passed to [[neuroscientist]] [[Tony Nader]]. Related organizations such as the [[Global Country of World Peace]] and the [[David Lynch Foundation]] have promoted TM.The technique has been variously described as both religious[{{cite book |last=Siegel |first=Aryeh |title=Transcendental Deception: Behind the TM Curtain |date=2018 |publisher=Janreg Press |location=Los Angeles, CA |isbn=978-0-9996615-0-5}}] and non-religious, with the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit]] notably upholding the federal ruling that TM was essentially "religious in nature" and therefore could not be taught in public schools.[{{cite web |url=http://www.leagle.com/decision/1979789592F2d197_1763/MALNAK%20v.%20YOGI |title=Malnak v. Yogi |date=1979 |website=Leagle |access-date=19 May 2017 }}]{{refn |group=nb |[[Sociology |Sociologists]], [[Religious studies |religion scholars]], and a [[New Jersey]] judge and court are among those who have expressed views on it being religious or non-religious.[{{cite book |author-last=Calo |author-first=Zachary |year=2008 |chapter=Chapter 4: The Internationalization of Church-State Issues |editor1-first=Ann |editor1-last=Duncan |editor2-first=Steven |editor2-last=Jones |title=Church-State Issues in America Today |location=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group |Praeger Publishers]] |isbn=978-0-275-99368-9 |page=159 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zzOn09EaETgC }}{{Dead link |date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}][{{cite journal |author-last=Ashman |author-first=Allan |date=January 1978 |title=What's New in the Law |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eDu0e8buVPAC&pg=PA124 |journal=[[American Bar Association Journal]] |location=Chicago |publisher=[[American Bar Association]] |volume=64 |pages=124–144 |issn=0002-7596}}] The [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit]] upheld the federal ruling that TM was essentially "religious in nature" and therefore could not be taught in public schools.[{{cite web |url=http://www.leagle.com/decision/1979789592F2d197_1763/MALNAK%20v.%20YOGI |title=Malnak v. Yogi |date=1979 |website=Leagle |access-date=19 May 2017 }}][{{cite book |author=Bette Novit Evans |title=Interpreting the Free Exercise of Religion: The Constitution and American Pluralism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7lzMCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA65 |date=9 November 2000 |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-6134-9 |page=65 |quote=Proponents of the program denied that Transcendental Meditation was a religion; the Third Circuit concluded that it was.}}]}} The TM movement has received criticism for allegedly disguising religious claims in [[pseudo-scientific]] language. |
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Research on TM began in the 1970s. TM has a comparable effect on general psychological wellbeing as other meditation techniques.[{{cite journal |last1=Bai |first1=Z |last2=Chang |first2=J |last3=Chen |first3=C |last4=Li |first4=P |last5=Yang |first5=K |last6=Chi |first6=I |date=February 2015 |title=Investigating the effect of transcendental meditation on blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=[[Journal of Human Hypertension]] |publisher=[[Nature Publishing Group]] |volume=29 |issue=11 |pages=653–662 |doi=10.1038/jhh.2015.6 |issn=1476-5527 |pmid=25673114 |s2cid=22261}}][{{cite journal |last1=Ooi |first1=Soo Liang |last2=Giovino |first2=Melisa |last3=Pak |first3=Sok Chean |date=October 2017 |title=Transcendental meditation for lowering blood pressure: An overview of systematic reviews and meta-analyses |journal=[[Complementary Therapies in Medicine]] |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=34 |pages=26–34 |doi=10.1016/j.ctim.2017.07.008 |issn=1873-6963 |pmid=28917372 |s2cid=4963470}}] The technique has been variously described as both religious[{{cite book |last=Siegel |first=Aryeh |title=Transcendental Deception: Behind the TM Curtain |date=2018 |publisher=Janreg Press |location=Los Angeles, CA |isbn=978-0-9996615-0-5}}] and non-religious, with the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit]] notably upholding the federal ruling that TM was essentially "religious in nature" and therefore could not be taught in public schools.[{{cite web |url=http://www.leagle.com/decision/1979789592F2d197_1763/MALNAK%20v.%20YOGI |title=Malnak v. Yogi |date=1979 |website=Leagle |access-date=19 May 2017 }}]{{refn |group=nb |[[Sociology |Sociologists]], [[Religious studies |religion scholars]], and a [[New Jersey]] judge and court are among those who have expressed views on it being religious or non-religious.[{{cite book |author-last=Calo |author-first=Zachary |year=2008 |chapter=Chapter 4: The Internationalization of Church-State Issues |editor1-first=Ann |editor1-last=Duncan |editor2-first=Steven |editor2-last=Jones |title=Church-State Issues in America Today |location=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group |Praeger Publishers]] |isbn=978-0-275-99368-9 |page=159 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zzOn09EaETgC }}{{Dead link |date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}][{{cite journal |author-last=Ashman |author-first=Allan |date=January 1978 |title=What's New in the Law |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eDu0e8buVPAC&pg=PA124 |journal=[[American Bar Association Journal]] |location=Chicago |publisher=[[American Bar Association]] |volume=64 |pages=124–144 |issn=0002-7596}}] The [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit]] upheld the federal ruling that TM was essentially "religious in nature" and therefore could not be taught in public schools.[{{cite web |url=http://www.leagle.com/decision/1979789592F2d197_1763/MALNAK%20v.%20YOGI |title=Malnak v. Yogi |date=1979 |website=Leagle |access-date=19 May 2017 }}][{{cite book |author=Bette Novit Evans |title=Interpreting the Free Exercise of Religion: The Constitution and American Pluralism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7lzMCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA65 |date=9 November 2000 |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-6134-9 |page=65 |quote=Proponents of the program denied that Transcendental Meditation was a religion; the Third Circuit concluded that it was.}}]}} The TM movement has received criticism for allegedly disguising religious claims in [[pseudo-scientific]] language. |
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Research on TM began in the 1970s. TM has a comparable effect on general psychological wellbeing as other meditation techniques.[{{cite journal |last1=Bai |first1=Z |last2=Chang |first2=J |last3=Chen |first3=C |last4=Li |first4=P |last5=Yang |first5=K |last6=Chi |first6=I |date=February 2015 |title=Investigating the effect of transcendental meditation on blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=[[Journal of Human Hypertension]] |publisher=[[Nature Publishing Group]] |volume=29 |issue=11 |pages=653–662 |doi=10.1038/jhh.2015.6 |issn=1476-5527 |pmid=25673114 |s2cid=22261}}][{{cite journal |last1=Ooi |first1=Soo Liang |last2=Giovino |first2=Melisa |last3=Pak |first3=Sok Chean |date=October 2017 |title=Transcendental meditation for lowering blood pressure: An overview of systematic reviews and meta-analyses |journal=[[Complementary Therapies in Medicine]] |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=34 |pages=26–34 |doi=10.1016/j.ctim.2017.07.008 |issn=1873-6963 |pmid=28917372 |s2cid=4963470}}] |
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