Thomas Carnelley

[[File:Carnelley_ILN.jpg|thumb]]

[[File:Carnelley_ILN.jpg|thumb]]

'''Thomas Carnelley''' (22 October 1854 – 27 August 1890) was a British chemist who contributed to [[physical chemistry]] and was involved in introducing German-inspired chemistry research into Britain as professor of chemistry at the University of Dundee and later at Aberdeen. He studied the relationships between the melting and boiling points of the salts of elements and their positions in the periodic table. He also examined relationships between molecular structures and physical properties and came up with a rule that is sometimes called "Carnelley's Rule".{{Cite journal |last=Yalkowsky |first=Samuel H. |date=2014 |title=Carnelley's Rule and the Prediction of Melting Point |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022354915304445 |journal=Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences |language=en |volume=103 |issue=9 |pages=2629–2634 |doi=10.1002/jps.24034|pmid=24899585 }}

'''Thomas Carnelley''' (22 October 1854 – 27 August 1890) was a British chemist who contributed to [[physical chemistry]] and was involved in introducing German-inspired chemistry research into Britain as professor of chemistry at the University of Dundee and later at Aberdeen. He studied the relationships between the melting and boiling points of the salts of elements and their positions in the [[periodic table]]. He also examined relationships between molecular structures and physical properties and came up with a rule that is sometimes called "Carnelley's Rule".{{Cite journal |last=Yalkowsky |first=Samuel H. |date=2014 |title=Carnelley's Rule and the Prediction of Melting Point |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022354915304445 |journal=Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences |language=en |volume=103 |issue=9 |pages=2629–2634 |doi=10.1002/jps.24034|pmid=24899585 }}

== Life and work ==

== Life and work ==

[[File:Carnelley_Mendeleev_Roscoe.jpg|thumb|left|Carnelley (standing second from left), [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] (bottom, centre) and Sir Henry Roscoe (bottom, right)]]

[[File:Carnelley_Mendeleev_Roscoe.jpg|thumb|left|Carnelley (standing second from left), [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] (bottom, centre) and Sir Henry Roscoe (bottom, right)]]

Carnelley was born in [[Manchester]], the son of William. He studied at King's College School, London and joined Owens College, Manchester in 1868. He showed scholastic brilliance and received a Bachelor of Science in 1871 with a third position in Third Class Honors in Chemistry. In 1872 he obtained second place in First Class Honors in Chemistry qualifying for a university scholarship. He studied the vanadates of thallium that led to a Dalton Chemical Scholarship and he worked as a private assistant to [[Henry Roscoe (chemist)|Henry Enfield Roscoe]] in 1872-74 giving lectures in the evening at Owens College. He then went to the [[University of Bonn]] and studied under [[August Kekulé]] (1829–1896), [[Theodor Zincke]] (1843–1928), and [[Otto Wallach]] (1847–1931). He studied the reactions of [[carbon disulfide]] and alcohol with hot copper catalysts{{Cite journal |last=Carnelley |first=Thomas |date=1875 |title=XXVI.—Note on the effect of passing the mixed vapours of carbon disulphide and alcohol over red hot copper |url=https://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=JS8752800523 |journal=J. Chem. Soc. |language=en |volume=28 |pages=523–526 |doi=10.1039/JS8752800523 |issn=0368-1769}} and the synthesis of tolylphenyl. He received a doctorate in 1876 and in 1879 he received a DSc from the University of London. He was appointed to Firth College, Sheffield in 1879 where he established a chemistry laboratory and in 1881 he moved to the University College of Dundee where he had more resources. He taught with great zeal and was popular among students. He also conducted research on the heating and ventilation of schools, the quality of air in buildings and so on leading to his being elected to the school board. He also established a museum and a dye-house with material contributed by Carnelley's father to the college. In 1888 he accepted the chair of chemistry at the University of Aberdeen following the death of [[James Smith Brazier]]. Two years after moving to Aberdeen, he suffered from a sudden illness and an internal abscess. He died at home in Cults, Aberdeen at the age of 36.{{Cite journal |last=Wisniak |first=Jaime |date=2012 |title=Thomas Carnelley |journal=Educación Química |language=en |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=465–473 |doi=10.1016/S0187-893X(17)30134-9|doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=R. |first1=H. E. |last2=B. |first2=P. P. |date=1890 |title=Thomas Carnelley |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/042522b0 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=42 |issue=1091 |pages=522–523 |doi=10.1038/042522b0 |bibcode=1890Natur..42..522H |issn=0028-0836}}

Carnelley was born in [[Manchester]], the son of William. He studied at King's College School, London and joined Owens College, Manchester in 1868. He showed scholastic brilliance and received a [[Bachelor of Science]] in 1871 with a third position in Third Class Honors in Chemistry. In 1872 he obtained second place in First Class Honors in Chemistry qualifying for a university scholarship. He studied the vanadates of thallium that led to a Dalton Chemical Scholarship and he worked as a private assistant to [[Henry Roscoe (chemist)|Henry Enfield Roscoe]] in 1872-74 giving lectures in the evening at Owens College. He then went to the [[University of Bonn]] and studied under [[August Kekulé]] (1829–1896), [[Theodor Zincke]] (1843–1928), and [[Otto Wallach]] (1847–1931). He studied the reactions of [[carbon disulfide]] and alcohol with hot copper catalysts{{Cite journal |last=Carnelley |first=Thomas |date=1875 |title=XXVI.—Note on the effect of passing the mixed vapours of carbon disulphide and alcohol over red hot copper |url=https://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=JS8752800523 |journal=J. Chem. Soc. |language=en |volume=28 |pages=523–526 |doi=10.1039/JS8752800523 |issn=0368-1769}} and the synthesis of tolylphenyl. He received a doctorate in 1876 and in 1879 he received a DSc from the University of London. He was appointed to Firth College, Sheffield in 1879 where he established a chemistry laboratory and in 1881 he moved to the University College of Dundee where he had more resources. He taught with great zeal and was popular among students. He also conducted research on the heating and ventilation of schools, the quality of air in buildings and so on leading to his being elected to the school board. He also established a museum and a dye-house with material contributed by Carnelley's father to the college. In 1888 he accepted the chair of chemistry at the University of Aberdeen following the death of [[James Smith Brazier]]. Two years after moving to Aberdeen, he suffered from a sudden illness and an internal abscess. He died at home in Cults, Aberdeen at the age of 36.{{Cite journal |last=Wisniak |first=Jaime |date=2012 |title=Thomas Carnelley |journal=Educación Química |language=en |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=465–473 |doi=10.1016/S0187-893X(17)30134-9|doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=R. |first1=H. E. |last2=B. |first2=P. P. |date=1890 |title=Thomas Carnelley |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/042522b0 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=42 |issue=1091 |pages=522–523 |doi=10.1038/042522b0 |bibcode=1890Natur..42..522H |issn=0028-0836}}

[[File:Carnelley and Haldane.jpg|thumb|Carnelley (left) and J. S. Haldane examining the air of Dundee sewer]]

[[File:Carnelley and Haldane.jpg|thumb|Carnelley (left) and J. S. Haldane examining the air of Dundee sewer]]

Carnelley helped introduce the German style of chemical research and industrial applications into Britain. He was elected to the Chemical Society of London in 1874. He published more than 50 papers and several textbooks. He studied the synthesis of several hydrocarbons including tolylphenyl{{Cite journal |last=Carnelley |first=Thomas |date=1876 |title=III.—On tolyl-phenyl, a new hydrocarbon |url=https://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=JS8762900013 |journal=J. Chem. Soc. |language=en |volume=29 |pages=13–23 |doi=10.1039/JS8762900013 |issn=0368-1769}} and ditolyl{{Cite journal |last=Carnelley |first=Thos. |date=1877 |title=XXVII.—On the oxidation of ditolyl |url=https://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=JS8773200653 |journal=J. Chem. Soc. |language=en |volume=32 |pages=653–660 |doi=10.1039/JS8773200653 |issn=0368-1769}} and examined the physics of ice. In his 1879 work, he examined the melting points of metallic salts and related them to their positions in the periodic table.{{Cite journal |last=Carnelley |first=Thomas |date=1876 |title=XXV.—On high melting points, with special reference to those of metallic salts |url=https://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=JS8762900489 |journal=J. Chem. Soc. |language=en |volume=29 |pages=489–509 |doi=10.1039/JS8762900489 |issn=0368-1769}}{{Cite journal |last=Carnelley |first=Thomas |date=1884 |title=XXV. The periodic law, and the occurrence of the elements in nature |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14786448408627589 |journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science |language=en |volume=18 |issue=112 |pages=194–200 |doi=10.1080/14786448408627589 |issn=1941-5982|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last=Carnelley |first=Thomas |date=1879 |title=XLI. Influence of atomic weight |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14786447908639698 |journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science |language=en |volume=8 |issue=50 |pages=368–381 |doi=10.1080/14786447908639698 |issn=1941-5982}} [[Dmitri Mendeleev|Mendeleeff]] took notice of the work and wrote to Henry Roscoe that Carnelley's work deserved wide knowledge. He stated that: “''The labors of Carnelley connected with the periodic law of the elements have been so remarkable that the history of the subject would be incomplete if his name were omitted''.”{{cite book|title= The Periodic Law The International Scientific Series|author=Garrett, A.E.| year=1909| publisher= D. Appleton And Company |url=https://archive.org/details/periodiclawthein013791mbp/page/n271/mode/2up%7Cpages=251-260}} Carnelley and Thomas Burton developed a new pyrometer to measure high temperatures.{{Cite journal |last1=Carnelley |first1=Thos. |last2=Burton |first2=Thos. |date=1884 |title=XXXVI.—A new form of pyrometer |url=https://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=CT8844500237 |journal=J. Chem. Soc., Trans. |language=en |volume=45 |pages=237–241 |doi=10.1039/CT8844500237 |issn=0368-1645}} It was made of a coil of copper tubing which carries water through it. Measurement was made of the water temperature at the inlet and at the outlet and he calibrated these with known temperatures. In 1881 he claimed that it was possible to maintain ice at solid phase at temperatures above the normal melting point under pressure.{{Cite journal |last=Carnelley |first=Thomas |date=1881-12-31 |title=IV. Preliminary note on the existence of ice and other bodies in the solid state at temperatures far above their ordinary melting points |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspl.1880.0030 |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London |language=en |volume=31 |issue=206–211 |pages=284–291 |doi=10.1098/rspl.1880.0030 |issn=0370-1662|url-access=subscription }} In 1880 the sublimation of ice was demonstrated at low temperatures.

Carnelley helped introduce the German style of chemical research and industrial applications into Britain. He was elected to the [[Chemical Society]] of London in 1874. He published more than 50 papers and several textbooks. He studied the synthesis of several hydrocarbons including tolylphenyl{{Cite journal |last=Carnelley |first=Thomas |date=1876 |title=III.—On tolyl-phenyl, a new hydrocarbon |url=https://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=JS8762900013 |journal=J. Chem. Soc. |language=en |volume=29 |pages=13–23 |doi=10.1039/JS8762900013 |issn=0368-1769}} and ditolyl{{Cite journal |last=Carnelley |first=Thos. |date=1877 |title=XXVII.—On the oxidation of ditolyl |url=https://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=JS8773200653 |journal=J. Chem. Soc. |language=en |volume=32 |pages=653–660 |doi=10.1039/JS8773200653 |issn=0368-1769}} and examined the physics of ice. In his 1879 work, he examined the melting points of metallic salts and related them to their positions in the periodic table.{{Cite journal |last=Carnelley |first=Thomas |date=1876 |title=XXV.—On high melting points, with special reference to those of metallic salts |url=https://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=JS8762900489 |journal=J. Chem. Soc. |language=en |volume=29 |pages=489–509 |doi=10.1039/JS8762900489 |issn=0368-1769}}{{Cite journal |last=Carnelley |first=Thomas |date=1884 |title=XXV. The periodic law, and the occurrence of the elements in nature |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14786448408627589 |journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science |language=en |volume=18 |issue=112 |pages=194–200 |doi=10.1080/14786448408627589 |issn=1941-5982|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last=Carnelley |first=Thomas |date=1879 |title=XLI. Influence of atomic weight |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14786447908639698 |journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science |language=en |volume=8 |issue=50 |pages=368–381 |doi=10.1080/14786447908639698 |issn=1941-5982}} [[Dmitri Mendeleev|Mendeleeff]] took notice of the work and wrote to Henry Roscoe that Carnelley's work deserved wide knowledge. He stated that: “''The labors of Carnelley connected with the periodic law of the elements have been so remarkable that the history of the subject would be incomplete if his name were omitted''.”{{cite book|title= The Periodic Law The International Scientific Series|author=Garrett, A.E.| year=1909| publisher= D. Appleton And Company |url=https://archive.org/details/periodiclawthein013791mbp/page/n271/mode/2up%7Cpages=251-260}} Carnelley and Thomas Burton developed a new pyrometer to measure high temperatures.{{Cite journal |last1=Carnelley |first1=Thos. |last2=Burton |first2=Thos. |date=1884 |title=XXXVI.—A new form of pyrometer |url=https://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=CT8844500237 |journal=J. Chem. Soc., Trans. |language=en |volume=45 |pages=237–241 |doi=10.1039/CT8844500237 |issn=0368-1645}} It was made of a coil of copper tubing which carries water through it. Measurement was made of the water temperature at the inlet and at the outlet and he calibrated these with known temperatures. In 1881 he claimed that it was possible to maintain ice at solid phase at temperatures above the normal melting point under pressure.{{Cite journal |last=Carnelley |first=Thomas |date=1881-12-31 |title=IV. Preliminary note on the existence of ice and other bodies in the solid state at temperatures far above their ordinary melting points |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspl.1880.0030 |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London |language=en |volume=31 |issue=206–211 |pages=284–291 |doi=10.1098/rspl.1880.0030 |issn=0370-1662|url-access=subscription }} In 1880 the sublimation of ice was demonstrated at low temperatures.

Carnelley's Rule states that of two or more isomers, those whose atoms are the more symmetrically and the more compactly arranged melt higher than those in which the atomic arrangement is asymmetrical or in the form of long chains.{{Cite journal |last=Carnelley |first=Thomas |date=1882 |title=XIII. Chemical symmetry, or the influence of atomic arrangement on the physical properties of compounds |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14786448208627154 |journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science |language=en |volume=13 |issue=79 |pages=112–130 |doi=10.1080/14786448208627154 |issn=1941-5982}}

Carnelley's Rule states that of two or more isomers, those whose atoms are the more symmetrically and the more compactly arranged melt higher than those in which the atomic arrangement is asymmetrical or in the form of long chains.{{Cite journal |last=Carnelley |first=Thomas |date=1882 |title=XIII. Chemical symmetry, or the influence of atomic arrangement on the physical properties of compounds |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14786448208627154 |journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science |language=en |volume=13 |issue=79 |pages=112–130 |doi=10.1080/14786448208627154 |issn=1941-5982}}