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The "cyclicity of all life, matter, and existence" is a fundamental belief of most Indian religions.[{{cite book |author-last=Bodewitz |author-first=Henk |year=2019 |chapter=Chapter 1 – The Hindu Doctrine of Transmigration: Its Origin and Background |editor1-last=Heilijgers |editor1-first=Dory H. |editor2-last=Houben |editor2-first=Jan E. M. |editor3-last=van Kooij |editor3-first=Karel |title=Vedic Cosmology and Ethics: Selected Studies |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Gonda Indological Studies |volume=19 |doi=10.1163/9789004400139_002 |doi-access=free |pages=3–19 |isbn=978-90-04-40013-9 |issn=1382-3442}}][{{Citation|last=Yadav|first=Garima|chapter=Abortion (Hinduism)|date=2018|pages=1–3|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-9402410365|doi=10.1007/978-94-024-1036-5_484-1|title=Hinduism and Tribal Religions|series=Encyclopedia of Indian Religions}}][[[Gavin Flood|Flood, Gavin D.]] (1996), ''An Introduction to Hinduism'', Cambridge University Press] The concept of ''saṃsāra'' has roots in the post-[[Vedas|Vedic literature]]; the theory is not discussed in the [[Vedas]] themselves.[A.M. Boyer: ''Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara.'' Journal Asiatique, (1901), Volume 9, Issue 18, S. 451–53, 459–68][Yuvraj Krishan: . Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1997, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1233-8}}] It appears in developed form, but without mechanistic details, in the early [[Upanishads]].[{{sfn|Stephen J. Laumakis|2008|pp=90–99}} The full exposition of the ''saṃsāra'' doctrine is found in [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism|early Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], as well as in various schools of [[Hindu philosophy]].] |
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The "cyclicity of all life, matter, and existence" is a fundamental belief of most Indian religions.[{{cite book |author-last=Bodewitz |author-first=Henk |year=2019 |chapter=Chapter 1 – The Hindu Doctrine of Transmigration: Its Origin and Background |editor1-last=Heilijgers |editor1-first=Dory H. |editor2-last=Houben |editor2-first=Jan E. M. |editor3-last=van Kooij |editor3-first=Karel |title=Vedic Cosmology and Ethics: Selected Studies |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Gonda Indological Studies |volume=19 |doi=10.1163/9789004400139_002 |doi-access=free |pages=3–19 |isbn=978-90-04-40013-9 |issn=1382-3442}}][{{Citation|last=Yadav|first=Garima|chapter=Abortion (Hinduism)|date=2018|pages=1–3|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-9402410365|doi=10.1007/978-94-024-1036-5_484-1|title=Hinduism and Tribal Religions|series=Encyclopedia of Indian Religions}}][[[Gavin Flood|Flood, Gavin D.]] (1996), ''An Introduction to Hinduism'', Cambridge University Press] The concept of ''saṃsāra'' has roots in the post-[[Vedas|Vedic literature]]; the theory is not discussed in the [[Vedas]] themselves.[A.M. Boyer: ''Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara.'' Journal Asiatique, (1901), Volume 9, Issue 18, S. 451–53, 459–68][Yuvraj Krishan: . Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1997, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1233-8}}] It appears in developed form, but without mechanistic details, in the early [[Upanishads]].[{{sfn|Stephen J. Laumakis|2008|pp=90–99}} The full exposition of the ''saṃsāra'' doctrine is found in [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism|early Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], as well as in various schools of [[Hindu philosophy]].] |
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==Etymology and Definition== |
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==Etymology and definition== |
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''Saṃsāra'' ([[Devanagari]]: संसार) means "wandering",{{Sfn|Mark Juergensmeyer|Wade Clark Roof|2011|pp=271–72}}{{Sfn| Lochtefeld|2002|p=589}} as well as "world" wherein the term connotes "cyclic change".{{Sfn|Klaus Klostermaier|2010|p=604}} S''aṃsāra'', a fundamental concept in all [[Indian religions]], is linked to the [[karma]] theory and refers to the belief that all living beings cyclically go through births and rebirths. The term is related to phrases such as "the cycle of successive existence", "transmigration", "karmic cycle", "the wheel of life", and "cyclicality of all life, matter, existence".{{Sfn|Mark Juergensmeyer|Wade Clark Roof|2011|pp=271–72}}[{{cite book|author=Rita M. Gross |title=Buddhism After Patriarchy: A Feminist History, Analysis, and Reconstruction of Buddhism |url=https://archive.org/details/buddhismafterpat00gros |url-access=registration |year=1993|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-0513-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/buddhismafterpat00gros/page/148 148] }}][ Many scholarly texts spell ''saṃsāra'' as ''samsara''.] |
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''Saṃsāra'' ([[Devanagari]]: संसार) means "wandering",{{Sfn|Mark Juergensmeyer|Wade Clark Roof|2011|pp=271–72}}{{Sfn| Lochtefeld|2002|p=589}} as well as "world" wherein the term connotes "cyclic change".{{Sfn|Klaus Klostermaier|2010|p=604}} S''aṃsāra'', a fundamental concept in all [[Indian religions]], is linked to the [[karma]] theory and refers to the belief that all living beings cyclically go through births and rebirths. The term is related to phrases such as "the cycle of successive existence", "transmigration", "karmic cycle", "the wheel of life", and "cyclicality of all life, matter, existence".{{Sfn|Mark Juergensmeyer|Wade Clark Roof|2011|pp=271–72}}[{{cite book|author=Rita M. Gross |title=Buddhism After Patriarchy: A Feminist History, Analysis, and Reconstruction of Buddhism |url=https://archive.org/details/buddhismafterpat00gros |url-access=registration |year=1993|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-0513-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/buddhismafterpat00gros/page/148 148] }}][ Many scholarly texts spell ''saṃsāra'' as ''samsara''.] |
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|source = —''[[Four Noble Truths]]'', Donald Lopez[[http://www.britannica.com/topic/Four-Noble-Truths Four Noble Truths, Buddhist philosophy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422075712/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Four-Noble-Truths |date=22 April 2016 }}, Donald Lopez, Encyclopædia Britannica][{{cite book|author1=Robert E. Buswell Jr.|author2=Donald S. Lopez Jr.|title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8|pages=304–05}}] |
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|source = —''[[Four Noble Truths]]'', Donald Lopez[[http://www.britannica.com/topic/Four-Noble-Truths Four Noble Truths, Buddhist philosophy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422075712/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Four-Noble-Truths |date=22 April 2016 }}, Donald Lopez, Encyclopædia Britannica][{{cite book|author1=Robert E. Buswell Jr.|author2=Donald S. Lopez Jr.|title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8|pages=304–05}}] |
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{{main article|Saṃsāra (Jainism)|Karma in Jainism}} |
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{{main article|Saṃsāra (Jainism)|Karma in Jainism}} |
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[[File:Saṃsāra.jpg|thumb|Symbolic depiction of saṃsāra at Shri Mahaveerji temple of Jainism.]] |
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[[File:Saṃsāra.jpg|thumb|upright|Symbolic depiction of saṃsāra at Shri Mahaveerji temple of Jainism.]] |
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In [[Jainism]], the ''saṃsāra'' and karma doctrine are central to its theological foundations, as evidenced by the extensive literature on it in the major sects of Jainism, and their pioneering ideas on karma and ''saṃsāra'' from the earliest times of the Jaina tradition.{{Sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=217–36}}[ ''Saṃsāra'' in Jainism represents the worldly life characterized by continuous rebirths and suffering in various realms of existence.{{Sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=226–28}}][{{cite book|author= Paul Dundas|title=The Jains |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |year=2003|publisher= Routledge|isbn=978-0415266055 |pages= 14–16, 102–05 }}][{{cite book|author=Tara Sethia |title=Ahimsā, Anekānta, and Jainism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYdlKv8wBiYC |year=2004|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2036-4|pages=30–31}}] |
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In [[Jainism]], the ''saṃsāra'' and karma doctrine are central to its theological foundations, as evidenced by the extensive literature on it in the major sects of Jainism, and their pioneering ideas on karma and ''saṃsāra'' from the earliest times of the Jaina tradition.{{Sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=217–36}}[ ''Saṃsāra'' in Jainism represents the worldly life characterized by continuous rebirths and suffering in various realms of existence.{{Sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=226–28}}][{{cite book|author= Paul Dundas|title=The Jains |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |year=2003|publisher= Routledge|isbn=978-0415266055 |pages= 14–16, 102–05 }}][{{cite book|author=Tara Sethia |title=Ahimsā, Anekānta, and Jainism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYdlKv8wBiYC |year=2004|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2036-4|pages=30–31}}] |
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A liberated soul in Jainism is one who has gone beyond ''saṃsāra'', is at the apex, is omniscient, remains there eternally, and is known as a ''[[Siddha]]''.{{Sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=222–23}} A male human being is considered closest to the apex with the potential to achieve liberation, particularly through asceticism. Women must gain karmic merit, to be reborn as man, and only then can they achieve spiritual liberation in Jainism, particularly in the [[Digambara]] sect of Jainism;[{{cite book|author=Jeffery D Long|title=Jainism: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajAEBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT36|year=2013|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85773-656-7|pages=36–37}}][{{cite book|author=Graham Harvey |title=Religions in Focus: New Approaches to Tradition and Contemporary Practices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wrTsCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT182|year=2016|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-93690-8|pages=182–83}}] however, this view has been historically debated within Jainism and different Jaina sects have expressed different views, particularly the Shvetambara sect that believes that women too can achieve liberation from ''saṃsāra''.[{{cite book|author= Paul Dundas|title=The Jains |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |year=2003|publisher= Routledge|isbn=978-0415266055 |pages= 55–59 }}] |
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A liberated soul in Jainism is one who has gone beyond ''saṃsāra'', is at the apex, is omniscient, remains there eternally, and is known as a ''[[Siddha]]''.{{Sfn|Jaini|1980|pp=222–23}} A male human being is considered closest to the apex with the potential to achieve liberation, particularly through asceticism. Women must gain karmic merit, to be reborn as man, and only then can they achieve spiritual liberation in Jainism, particularly in the [[Digambara]] sect of Jainism;[{{cite book|author=Jeffery D Long|title=Jainism: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajAEBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT36|year=2013|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85773-656-7|pages=36–37}}][{{cite book|author=Graham Harvey |title=Religions in Focus: New Approaches to Tradition and Contemporary Practices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wrTsCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT182|year=2016|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-93690-8|pages=182–83}}] however, this view has been historically debated within Jainism and different Jaina sects have expressed different views, particularly the Shvetambara sect that believes that women too can achieve liberation from ''saṃsāra''.[{{cite book|author= Paul Dundas|title=The Jains |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |year=2003|publisher= Routledge|isbn=978-0415266055 |pages= 55–59 }}] |
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In contrast to Buddhist texts which do not expressly or unambiguously condemn injuring or killing plants and minor life forms, Jaina texts do. Jainism considers it a bad karma to injure plants and minor life forms with negative impact on a soul's {{IAST|saṃsāra}}.[[[Lambert Schmithausen]] (1991), ''Buddhism and Nature'', Studia Philologica Buddhica, The International Institute for Buddhist Studies, Tokyo Japan, pp. 6–7] However, some texts in Buddhism and Hinduism do caution a person from injuring all life forms, including plants and seeds.[[[Rod Preece]] (1999), Animals and Nature: Cultural Myths, Cultural Realities, {{ISBN|978-0-7748-0725-8}}, University of British Columbia Press, pp. 212–17][Christopher Chapple (1990), Ecological Nonviolence and the Hindu Tradition, in ''Perspectives on Nonviolence'', Springer, {{ISBN|978-1-4612-4458-5}}, pp. 168–77;]
L. Alsdorf (1962), ''Beiträge zur Geschichte von Vegetarismus und Rinderverehrung in Indien, Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur'', F. Steiner Wiesbaden, pp. 592–93 |
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In contrast to Buddhist texts which do not expressly or unambiguously condemn injuring or killing plants and minor life forms, Jaina texts do. Jainism considers it a bad karma to injure plants and minor life forms with negative impact on a soul's {{IAST|saṃsāra}}.[[[Lambert Schmithausen]] (1991), ''Buddhism and Nature'', Studia Philologica Buddhica, The International Institute for Buddhist Studies, Tokyo Japan, pp. 6–7] However, some texts in Buddhism and Hinduism do caution a person from injuring all life forms, including plants and seeds.[[[Rod Preece]] (1999), Animals and Nature: Cultural Myths, Cultural Realities, {{ISBN|978-0-7748-0725-8}}, University of British Columbia Press, pp. 212–17][Christopher Chapple (1990), Ecological Nonviolence and the Hindu Tradition, in ''Perspectives on Nonviolence'', Springer, {{ISBN|978-1-4612-4458-5}}, pp. 168–77; />L. Alsdorf (1962), ''Beiträge zur Geschichte von Vegetarismus und Rinderverehrung in Indien, Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur'', F. Steiner Wiesbaden, pp. 592–93] |
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==In Buddhism== |
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==In Buddhism== |
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[[File:The wheel of life, Trongsa dzong.jpg|thumb|Traditional Tibetan [[thangka]] showing the [[bhavacakra]] and six realms of ''saṃsāra'' in Buddhist cosmology.[{{cite book|author1=Patrul Rinpoche|author2=Dalai Lama|title=The Words of My Perfect Teacher: A Complete Translation of a Classic Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40i38mGQ6aAC&pg=PA61|year=1998|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0-7619-9027-7|pages=61–99}}]]] |
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[[File:The wheel of life, Trongsa dzong.jpg|thumb|upright|Traditional Tibetan [[thangka]] showing the [[bhavacakra]] and six realms of ''saṃsāra'' in Buddhist cosmology.[{{cite book|author1=Patrul Rinpoche|author2=Dalai Lama|title=The Words of My Perfect Teacher: A Complete Translation of a Classic Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40i38mGQ6aAC&pg=PA61|year=1998|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0-7619-9027-7|pages=61–99}}]]] |
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{{main article|Saṃsāra (Buddhism)|Bhavacakra|Six realms}} |
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{{main article|Saṃsāra (Buddhism)|Bhavacakra|Six realms}} |
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* [[Rota Fortunae]] |
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* [[Rota Fortunae]] |
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* [[Resurrection]] |
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* [[Resurrection]] |
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==References== |
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==References== |
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=== Citations === |
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=== Citations === |
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{{Reflist|30em}} |
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{{reflist}} |
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=== Sources === |
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=== Sources === |
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