North Junín Quechua

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'''North Junín Quechua''' is a language dialect of Quechua spoken throughout the Andean highlands of the [[Junín Province|Northern Junín]] and [[Tarma Province|Tarma]] provinces of Peru. Dialects under North Junín Quechua include Tarma Quechua spoken in Tarma Province and the subdialect San Pedros de Cajas Quechua. North Junín Quechua belongs to the [[Yaru Quechua]] dialect cluster under the [[Quechua I| Quechua I dialects]]. Initially spoken by Huancas and neighboring native people, Quechua's Junín dialect was absorbed by the Inca Empire in 1460 but relatively unaffected by the Southern Cuzco dialect. The Inca Empire had to defeat stiff resistance by the Huanca people.

'''North Junín Quechua''' is a language dialect of Quechua spoken throughout the Andean highlands of the [[Junín Province|Northern Junín]] and [[Tarma Province|Tarma]] provinces of Peru. Dialects under North Junín Quechua include Tarma Quechua spoken in Tarma Province and the subdialect San Pedros de Cajas Quechua. North Junín Quechua belongs to the [[Yaru Quechua]] dialect cluster under the [[Quechua I|Quechua I dialects]]. Initially spoken by [[Huanca|Huancas]] and neighboring native people, the Junín dialect was absorbed by the Inca Empire in 1460 but relatively unaffected by the [[Cusco Quechua|Southern Cuzco dialect]]. The Inca Empire had to defeat stiff resistance by the Huanca people.

Currently listed as an endangered language, San Pedros de Cajas dialect of Quechua has been under study and found in use mainly at home with Spanish being used in schools. A survey conducted in a secondary school resulted in only one out of fifty students answering that he/she used Quechua at home.{{cite thesis |type=B.A. |last=Fumi |first=Madeline |date=2015 |title=Death, Maintenance and Revitalization of the Quechua Language in Peru: A Case Study with a Focus on San Pedro de Cajas |publisher=University of Mississippi}}

Currently listed as an endangered language, the San Pedros de Cajas dialect of Quechua has been under study and found in use mainly at home with Spanish being used in schools. A survey conducted in a secondary school resulted in only one out of fifty students answering that they used Quechua at home.{{cite thesis |type=B.A. |last=Fumi |first=Madeline |date=2015 |title=Death, Maintenance and Revitalization of the Quechua Language in Peru: A Case Study with a Focus on San Pedro de Cajas |publisher=University of Mississippi}}

Recent work by linguists have focused on tracing the origin of Quechua by comparing the reconstructed language, Proto- Quechua, with Proto-[[Aymaran languages|Aymaran]]. There exist arguments on both sides as Paul Heggarty argues against a distant relationship. Similarities have been found to span both proto-languages from reconstruction of a variety of Quechua dialects; commonalities include apa- meaning "to carry," picqa meaning "five," urqu meaning "mountain," and qipa meaning "before (space), after (time)," all words in Junín Quechua.

[[Willem Adelaar]] has conducted extensive work on Quechua dialects and has published findings on the Tarma dialect. Recent work by linguists have focused on tracing the origin of Quechua by comparing the reconstructed language, Proto- Quechua, with Proto-[[Aymaran languages|Aymaran]]. There exist arguments on both sides as Paul Heggarty argues against a distant relationship. Similarities have been found to span both proto-languages from reconstruction of a variety of Quechua dialects; commonalities include apa- meaning "to carry," picqa meaning "five," urqu meaning "mountain," and qipa meaning "before (space), after (time)," all words in Junín Quechua.

{{cite journal |last1= Emlen|first1= Nicholas|date= April 2017|title= Perspectives On The Quechua–Aymara Contact Relationship And The Lexicon And Phonology Of Pre-Proto-Aymara|journal= International Journal of American Linguistics|volume= 83|issue= 2|pages= 307–340|doi= 10.1086/689911|hdl= 1887/71538|hdl-access= free}} Qipa exemplifies relative temporal marking rather than tense marking.

{{cite journal |last1= Emlen|first1= Nicholas|date= April 2017|title= Perspectives On The Quechua–Aymara Contact Relationship And The Lexicon And Phonology Of Pre-Proto-Aymara|journal= International Journal of American Linguistics|volume= 83|issue= 2|pages= 307–340|doi= 10.1086/689911|hdl= 1887/71538|hdl-access= free}} Qipa exemplifies relative temporal marking rather than tense marking.

== Phonology ==

An agglutinating language, Quechua has been analyzed by sub-grouping its copious morphemes together, particularly its suffixes. A feature of Junín Quechua and Quechua I, which includes North Junín dialect, belongs to characterization of non-final suffixes. [[Willem Adelaar]] has conducted extensive work on Quechua dialects and has published findings on the Tarma dialect.

== Linguistic Analyses ==

=== Morphemes ===

The suffixes of verbs in basically every Quechua I dialect subdivides into final and non-final suffixes. North Junín Quechua holds a division of non-final verb suffixes into the left and right block. The right block, usually inflectional, participates in similar fashion to final verb suffixes in allowing long vowels. The left block merges (and co-lexicalizes) with verb roots such that its non-final verb suffixes can be both derivational and inflectional.

{{cite journal |last1= Adelaar|first1= Willem|date= 2006|title=The vicissitudes of directional affixes in Tarma (Northern Junín) Quechua |journal=What's in a Verb? Studies in the Verbal Morphology of the Languages of the Americas |access-date= 13 October 2018 |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/296550/bookpart.pdf?sequence=2}} A prescribed order affects the right-block suffixes such that, for a causative suffix, morphemes occur in a specified order regardless of their relationship to the subject. Vowel length can change meaning in ways including but not limited to marking first person, marking causation, and marking pronouns.

{{cite book |last1= Adelaar|first1= Willem|title= The Languages of the Andes|chapter= 3|location= Cambridge, UK|publisher= Cambridge University Press|date= 2004|pages= 157–158}}

These relationships form a structural explanation for Tarma Quechua's agglutinating script.

Tarma Quechua possesses some unique changes to the directional morphemes that denote "Up," "Down," "In," and "Out." The "Down" morpheme "rpu" exists as a left hand block suffix and has productively led to "lpu" meaning overcoming resistance in addition to simplification to "ru."

=== Phonemes ===

For an inventory of phonemes of both Tarma and San Juan de Cajas dialects see [http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~saphon/en/inv/NJuninT.html] and [http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~saphon/en/inv/NJuninSPQ.html] respectively. The de-aspiration of the phoneme tʃ, i.e. tʃ' -> tʃ, has been noted.

For an inventory of phonemes of both Tarma and San Juan de Cajas dialects see [http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~saphon/en/inv/NJuninT.html] and [http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~saphon/en/inv/NJuninSPQ.html] respectively. The de-aspiration of the phoneme tʃ, i.e. tʃ' -> tʃ, has been noted.

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The variety of Tarma spoken in San Pedro de Cajas lacks a voiced bilabial stop /b/ and adds a voiceless uvular fricative /χ/.

The variety of Tarma spoken in San Pedro de Cajas lacks a voiced bilabial stop /b/ and adds a voiceless uvular fricative /χ/.

== Morphology ==

An agglutinating language, Quechua has been analyzed by sub-grouping its copious morphemes together, particularly its suffixes. A feature of Junín Quechua and Quechua I, which includes North Junín dialect, belongs to characterization of non-final suffixes.

The suffixes of verbs in basically every Quechua I dialect subdivides into final and non-final suffixes. North Junín Quechua holds a division of non-final verb suffixes into the left and right block. The right block, usually inflectional, participates in similar fashion to final verb suffixes in allowing long vowels. The left block merges (and co-lexicalizes) with verb roots such that its non-final verb suffixes can be both derivational and inflectional.

{{cite journal |last1= Adelaar|first1= Willem|date= 2006|title=The vicissitudes of directional affixes in Tarma (Northern Junín) Quechua |journal=What's in a Verb? Studies in the Verbal Morphology of the Languages of the Americas |access-date= 13 October 2018 |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/296550/bookpart.pdf?sequence=2}} A prescribed order affects the right-block suffixes such that, for a causative suffix, morphemes occur in a specified order regardless of their relationship to the subject. Vowel length can change meaning in ways including but not limited to marking first person, marking causation, and marking pronouns.

{{cite book |last1= Adelaar|first1= Willem|title= The Languages of the Andes|chapter= 3|location= Cambridge, UK|publisher= Cambridge University Press|date= 2004|pages= 157–158}}

These relationships form a structural explanation for Tarma Quechua's agglutinating script.

Tarma Quechua possesses some unique changes to the directional morphemes that denote "Up," "Down," "In," and "Out." The "Down" morpheme "rpu" exists as a left hand block suffix and has productively led to "lpu" meaning overcoming resistance in addition to simplification to "ru."

=== Nominalization ===

=== Nominalization ===

We observe that [[Nominalization|nominalized clauses]] can be case marked entirely. The Huanca dialect of North Junin Quechua allows case marking of nominal clauses as the [[genitive case]], restricted in most other Quechua dialects.

[[Nominalization|Nominalized clauses]] can be case marked entirely. The Huanca dialect of North Junin Quechua allows case marking of nominal clauses as the [[genitive case]], restricted in most other Quechua dialects.

{{cite journal |last1= Cole|first1= Peter|last2= Hermon|first2= Gabriella|date= May 2011|title= Nominalization and case assignment in Quechua|journal= Lingua|volume= 121|issue= 7|pages= 1225–1251|doi= 10.1016/j.lingua.2011.01.010}} Furthermore, the nominal clauses only mark relative temporal differences, i.e. no tense marking.

{{cite journal |last1= Cole|first1= Peter|last2= Hermon|first2= Gabriella|date= May 2011|title= Nominalization and case assignment in Quechua|journal= Lingua|volume= 121|issue= 7|pages= 1225–1251|doi= 10.1016/j.lingua.2011.01.010}} Furthermore, the nominal clauses only mark relative temporal differences, i.e. no tense marking.