Naser al-Din Shah Qajar

On 2 November 1856, at four in the afternoon, the Shah was sitting in the [[Mirror Hall]] of the outer court of the [[Golestan Palace]], next to the Crystal Fountain. His servant in waiting, Yadullah Khan, brought news of the successful conquest in Herat, for which he was gifted with a thousand [[Iranian toman|tomans]].{{Cite journal|title=Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831-1896|url=https://doi.org/10.2307/2651594|journal=The American Historical Review|date=October 2000|issn=0002-8762|pages=1429|volume=105|issue=4|doi=10.2307/2651594|first1=Guity|last1=Nashat|first2=Abbas|last2=Amanat |jstor=2651594 }} In the margin of a Persian translation of [[Louis Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne|Louis de Bourrienne's]] ''Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte,'' the Shah wrote:

Thanks to Murtaza 'Ali's blessings, peace be upon him, this was a praiseworthy victory and the eyes of the enemy, particularly the British, turned blind [with jealousy]. Hundred and ten gun salutes were fired in honor of his holiness 'Ali.

— Naser al-Din Shah

On 2 November 1856, at four in the afternoon, the Shah was sitting in the [[Mirror Hall]] of the outer court of the [[Golestan Palace]], next to the Crystal Fountain. His servant in waiting, Yadullah Khan, brought news of the successful conquest in Herat, for which he was gifted with a thousand [[Iranian toman|tomans]].{{Cite journal|title=Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831-1896|url=https://doi.org/10.2307/2651594|journal=The American Historical Review|date=October 2000|issn=0002-8762|pages=1429|volume=105|issue=4|doi=10.2307/2651594|first1=Guity|last1=Nashat|first2=Abbas|last2=Amanat |jstor=2651594 }} In the margin of a Persian translation of [[Louis Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne|Louis de Bourrienne's]] ''Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte,'' the Shah wrote:

Thanks to Murtaza 'Ali's blessings, peace be upon him, this was a praiseworthy victory and the eyes of the enemy, particularly the British, turned blind [with jealousy]. Hundred and ten gun salutes were fired in honor of his holiness 'Ali.

— Naser al-Din Shah

The Qajar court announced a [[Levee (ceremony)|public levee]] in honor of the occasion, during which the court chronicler recited the official records of the conquest as ascribed to Hesam o-Saltaneh.{{Cite journal|title=Abbas Amanat. Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1997. Pp. xix, 536. $45.00|url=https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/105.4.1429|journal=The American Historical Review|date=2000-10-01|issn=1937-5239|pages=1429–1430|volume=105|issue=4|doi=10.1086/ahr/105.4.1429|first=Guity|last=Nashat}} The document lists the administrative decisions taken in the aftermath of Herat's capture. In a symbolic move, the Shah's name was mentioned in the [[Friday prayer|Friday sermon]] and the [[Shia Islam|Shia]] [[adhan]] became the call to prayer. Similarly, the mint struck coins in Naseraddin Shah's name.{{Cite journal|title=HERAT|url=https://doi.org/10.1163/2330-4804_eiro_com_3014|website=Encyclopaedia Iranica Online|doi=10.1163/2330-4804_eiro_com_3014 |access-date=2025-11-27}} A public holiday was soon declared and a national booklet outlining the conquest was disseminated.[[File:Prince Majd ed-Dowleh Amirsoleimani.jpg|thumb|A group photograph taken during a garden party for the Shah at [[Hatfield House]] in July 1889. The photograph includes [[Edward VII]] and [[Alexandra of Denmark]].]]Naser al-Din was the first modern Iranian monarch to visit Europe in 1873 and then again in 1878 (when he saw a [[Fleet Review, Royal Navy#Queen Victoria|Royal Navy Fleet Review]]), and finally in 1889 and was reportedly amazed with the technology he saw. During his visit to the United Kingdom in 1873, Naseraddin Shah was appointed by [[Queen Victoria]] a Knight of the [[Order of the Garter]], the highest English order of chivalry. He was the first Iranian monarch to be honoured as such. His travel diary of his 1873 trip has been published in several languages, including Persian, German, French, and Dutch.

The Qajar court announced a [[Levee (ceremony)|public levee]] in honor of the occasion, during which the court chronicler recited the official records of the conquest as ascribed to Hesam o-Saltaneh.{{Cite journal|title=Abbas Amanat. ''Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1997. Pp. xix, 536. $45.00|url=https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/105.4.1429|journal=The American Historical Review|date=2000-10-01|issn=1937-5239|pages=1429–1430|volume=105|issue=4|doi=10.1086/ahr/105.4.1429|first=Guity|last=Nashat}} The document lists the administrative decisions taken in the aftermath of Herat's capture. In a symbolic move, the Shah's name was mentioned in the [[Friday prayer|Friday sermon]] and the [[Shia Islam|Shia]] [[adhan]] became the call to prayer. Similarly, the mint struck coins in Naseraddin Shah's name.{{Cite journal|title=HERAT|url=https://doi.org/10.1163/2330-4804_eiro_com_3014|website=Encyclopaedia Iranica Online|doi=10.1163/2330-4804_eiro_com_3014 |access-date=2025-11-27}} A public holiday was soon declared and a national booklet outlining the conquest was disseminated.[[File:Prince Majd ed-Dowleh Amirsoleimani.jpg|thumb|A group photograph taken during a garden party for the Shah at [[Hatfield House]] in July 1889. The photograph includes [[Edward VII]] and [[Alexandra of Denmark]].]]Naser al-Din was the first modern Iranian monarch to visit Europe in 1873 and then again in 1878 (when he saw a [[Fleet Review, Royal Navy#Queen Victoria|Royal Navy Fleet Review]]), and finally in 1889 and was reportedly amazed with the technology he saw. During his visit to the United Kingdom in 1873, Naseraddin Shah was appointed by [[Queen Victoria]] a Knight of the [[Order of the Garter]], the highest English order of chivalry. He was the first Iranian monarch to be honoured as such. His travel diary of his 1873 trip has been published in several languages, including Persian, German, French, and Dutch.

In 1890 Naser met British major Gerald F. Talbot and signed a [[contract]] with him giving him the ownership of the Iranian [[tobacco]] industry, but he later was forced to cancel the contract after [[Ayatollah]] [[Mirza Hassan Shirazi]] issued a [[Fatwā|fatwa]] that made farming, trading, and consuming tobacco [[haram]] (forbidden). Consuming tobacco from the newly monopolized 'Talbet' company represented foreign exploitation, so for that reason it was deemed immoral. It even affected the Shah's personal life as his wives did not allow him to smoke.

In 1890 Naser met British major Gerald F. Talbot and signed a [[contract]] with him giving him the ownership of the Iranian [[tobacco]] industry, but he later was forced to cancel the contract after [[Ayatollah]] [[Mirza Hassan Shirazi]] issued a [[Fatwā|fatwa]] that made farming, trading, and consuming tobacco [[haram]] (forbidden). Consuming tobacco from the newly monopolized 'Talbet' company represented foreign exploitation, so for that reason it was deemed immoral. It even affected the Shah's personal life as his wives did not allow him to smoke.

This was not the end of Naser's attempts to give concessions to Europeans; he later gave the ownership of Iranian customs incomes to [[Paul Julius Reuter]].{{Cite book |last1=Ādamīyat |first1=Farīdūn |title=Andīshah-ʼi taraqqī va hukūmat-i qānūn ; ʻaṣr-i sipahsālār |last2=آدميت، فريدون. |date=2006 |publisher=Intisharat-i Khvar̄azmi, ̄ |isbn=964-487-090-5 |edition=Chap̄-i 3 |location=Tihran |pages=348–370 |oclc=677122775}}

This was not the end of Naser's attempts to give concessions to Europeans; he later gave the ownership of Iranian customs incomes to [[Paul Julius Reuter]].{{Cite book |last1=Ādamīyat |first1=Farīdūn |title=Andīshah-ʼi taraqqī va hukūmat-i qānūn; ʻaṣr-i sipahsālār |last2=آدميت، فريدون. |date=2006 |publisher=Intisharat-i Khvar̄azmi, ̄ |isbn=964-487-090-5 |edition=Chap̄-i 3 |location=Tihran |pages=348–370 |oclc=677122775}}

===Reforms===

===Reforms===

The Shah gradually lost interest in reform. However, he took some important measures such as introducing [[telegraphy]] and [[post office|postal]] services and building roads.

The Shah gradually lost interest in reform. However, he took some important measures such as introducing [[telegraphy]] and [[post office|postal]] services and building roads.

[[File:اعتضاد‌السلطنه.png|thumb|In 1860, the shah established the Ministry of Science and appointed [[Aliqoli Mirza Qajar]] as its first Minister of Science.]]

[[File:اعتضاد‌السلطنه.png|thumb|In 1860, the shah established the Ministry of Science and appointed [[Aliqoli Mirza Qajar]] as its first Minister of Science.]]

He also increased the size of the state's military and created a new group called the [[Persian Cossack Brigade]]William Cleveland, ''A History of the Modern Middle East'', 5th ed., (Westview, 2012) p. 103 which was trained and armed by the Russians. He was the first Iranian to be photographed and was a patron of [[photography]] who had himself photographed hundreds of times. His final prime minister was [[Mirza Ali Asghar Khan Amin al-Soltan|Ali Asghar Khan]], who after the shah's assassination aided in securing the transfer of the throne to [[Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar|Mozaffar al-Din]]. Although he was successful in introducing those western-based reforms, he was not successful in gaining complete sovereignty over his people or getting them to accept these reforms.

He also increased the size of the state's military and created a new group called the [[Persian Cossack Brigade]]William Cleveland, ''A History of the Modern Middle East'', 5th ed., (Westview, 2012) p. 103 which was trained and armed by the Russians. He was the first Iranian to be photographed and was a patron of [[photography]] who had himself photographed hundreds of times. His final prime minister was [[Mirza Ali Asghar Khan Amin al-Soltan|Ali Asghar Khan]], who after the shah's assassination aided in securing the transfer of the throne to [[Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar|Mozaffar al-Din]]. Although he was successful in introducing those western-based reforms, he was not successful in gaining complete sovereignty over his people or getting them to accept these reforms.

The school he opened, Dar al-Funun, had very small enrollment numbers. The restrictions defined by Shia Islam on the shah's collection of the ''zakat'' led to those funds going straight into the coffers of the ulama. Therefore, the financial autonomy given to the ulama enabled them to remain structurally independent, keeping madrasahs open and supporting the students therein.Cleveland, William L. ''A History of the Modern Middle East'' (Westview Press, 2013) p. 104 The ulama also maintained their authority to challenge state law.

The school he opened, Dar al-Funun, had very small enrollment numbers. The restrictions defined by Shia Islam on the shah's collection of the ''zakat'' led to those funds going straight into the coffers of the ulama. Therefore, the financial autonomy given to the ulama enabled them to remain structurally independent, keeping madrasahs open and supporting the students therein.Cleveland, William L. ''A History of the Modern Middle East'' (Westview Press, 2013) p. 104 The ulama also maintained their authority to challenge state law.

Naser al-Din Shah inherited an Iran where [[Iranian Jews]], as a protected [[Dhimmi]] minority under traditional Shi'i interpretations, faced systemic social, legal, and economic restrictions rooted in notions of ritual impurity (najasat).{{Cite book |last=Tsadik |first=Daniel |url=https://doi.org/10.11126/stanford/9780804754583.001.0001 |title=Between Foreigners and Shiʿis |date=2007-11-09 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-5458-3}} Yet the shah's personal stance and policies evolved, showing a mix of pragmatic tolerance, responsiveness to the [[Great Game]], and personal curiosity or sympathy influenced by his European travels and admiration for ancient Persian history (particularly [[Cyrus the Great]]'s role in [[Jewish history]]).{{Cite web |title=JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES |url=https://doi.org/10.1163/2330-4804_eiro_com_4089 |access-date=2026-04-06 |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica Online}}

Naser al-Din Shah inherited an Iran where [[Iranian Jews]], as a protected [[Dhimmi]] minority under traditional Shi'i interpretations, faced systemic social, legal, and economic restrictions rooted in notions of ritual impurity (najasat).{{Cite book |last=Tsadik |first=Daniel |url=https://doi.org/10.11126/stanford/9780804754583.001.0001 |title=Between Foreigners and Shiʿis |date=2007-11-09 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-5458-3}} Yet the shah's personal stance and policies evolved, showing a mix of pragmatic tolerance, responsiveness to the [[Great Game]], and personal curiosity or sympathy influenced by his European travels and admiration for ancient Persian history (particularly [[Cyrus the Great]]'s role in [[Jewish history]]).{{Cite web |title=JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES |url=https://doi.org/10.1163/2330-4804_eiro_com_4089 |access-date=2026-04-06 |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica Online}}

In 1873, Naser al-Din Shah met a member of the [[Rothschild family]], “a Jew who is exceedingly rich,” as he recalls in his travelogue.{{Cite web |last=Virastar |date=2020-10-19 |title=How Paris Bedazzled a Persian King |url=https://tehranbureau.com/how-paris-bedazzled-a-persian-king/ |access-date=2026-04-06 |website=Tehran Bureau |language=en-US}} He went on to document their amusingly prescient conversation in [[Diary of H.M. the Shah of Persia During His Tour Through Europe in A.D. 1873|his diary]] during his tour through [[Europe]] and famously stated{{Cite web |last=Bidoun |title=Redolent Delusions: Nasir al-Din Shah and the art of indifference |url=https://www.bidoun.org/articles/redolent-delusions |access-date=2026-04-06 |website=Bidoun |language=en}}:

In 1873, Naser al-Din Shah met a member of the [[Rothschild family]], “a Jew who is exceedingly rich,” as he recalls in his travelogue. name="Virastar">{{Cite web |last=Virastar |date=2020-10-19 |title=How Paris Bedazzled a Persian King |url=https://tehranbureau.com/how-paris-bedazzled-a-persian-king/ |access-date=2026-04-06 |website=Tehran Bureau |language=en-US}} He went on to document their amusingly prescient conversation in [[Diary of H.M. the Shah of Persia During His Tour Through Europe in A.D. 1873|his diary]] during his tour through [[Europe]] and famously stated:{{Cite web |last=Bidoun |title=Redolent Delusions: Nasir al-Din Shah and the art of indifference |url=https://www.bidoun.org/articles/redolent-delusions |access-date=2026-04-06 |website=Bidoun |language=en}}

[Rothschild] greatly advocated the cause of the Jews, mentioned the Jews of Persia, and claimed tranquillity for them. I said to him: “I have heard that you, brothers, possess a thousand crores of money. I consider the best thing to do would be that you should pay fifty crores to some large or small State, and buy a territory in which you could collect all the Jews of the whole world, you becoming their chiefs, and leading them on their way in peace so that you should no longer be thus scattered and dispersed.” We laughed heartily, and he made no reply. I gave him an assurance that I do protect every alien nationality that is in Persia.{{Cite book |last=Nasir al-Din Shah |first=Shah of Iran |url=http://archive.org/details/diaryofhmshahofp00nasi |title=The diary of H. M. the Shah of Persia, during his tour through Europe in A. D. 1873 |last2=Redhouse |first2=James W. (James William) |date=1874 |publisher=London : J. Murray |others=The Library of Congress}}>{{Cite web |last=Virastar |date=2020-10-19 |title=How Paris Bedazzled a Persian King |url=https://tehranbureau.com/how-paris-bedazzled-a-persian-king/ |access-date=2026-04-06 |website=Tehran Bureau |language=en-US}}</ref>

— Naser al-Din Shah

[Rothschild] greatly advocated the cause of the Jews, mentioned the Jews of Persia, and claimed tranquillity for them. I said to him: “I have heard that you, brothers, possess a thousand crores of money. I consider the best thing to do would be that you should pay fifty crores to some large or small State, and buy a territory in which you could collect all the Jews of the whole world, you becoming their chiefs, and leading them on their way in peace so that you should no longer be thus scattered and dispersed.” We laughed heartily, and he made no reply. I gave him an assurance that I do protect every alien nationality that is in Persia.{{Cite book |last=Nasir al-Din Shah |first=Shah of Iran |url=http://archive.org/details/diaryofhmshahofp00nasi |title=The diary of H. M. the Shah of Persia, during his tour through Europe in A. D. 1873 |last2=Redhouse |first2=James W. (James William) |date=1874 |publisher=London : J. Murray |others=The Library of Congress}}name="Virastar"/>

— Naser al-Din Shah

In the same year [[Adolphe Crémieux]], director of [[Alliance Israélite Universelle]], had a meeting with the Shah and presented him with details of the problems Iranian Jews were facing. Naser al-Din Shah approved the establishment of school by Alliance and to eliminate the religious anti-Jewish laws.{{Cite web |title=ALLIANCE ISRAÉLITE UNIVERSELLE |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/alliance-israelite-universelle/ |access-date=2026-04-06 |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |language=en-US}} The [[Alliance School, Tehran|Alliance School (Tehran)]] opened in 1898, twenty-five years after the meeting with Naser al-Din Shah.{{Cite journal |date=1985-09-28 |title=Medicine and Books |url=https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.291.6499.893 |journal=BMJ |volume=291 |issue=6499 |pages=893–895 |doi=10.1136/bmj.291.6499.893 |issn=0267-0623}}

In the same year [[Adolphe Crémieux]], director of [[Alliance Israélite Universelle]], had a meeting with the Shah and presented him with details of the problems Iranian Jews were facing. Naser al-Din Shah approved the establishment of school by Alliance and to eliminate the religious anti-Jewish laws.{{Cite web |title=ALLIANCE ISRAÉLITE UNIVERSELLE |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/alliance-israelite-universelle/ |access-date=2026-04-06 |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |language=en-US}} The [[Alliance School, Tehran|Alliance School (Tehran)]] opened in 1898, twenty-five years after the meeting with Naser al-Din Shah.{{Cite journal |date=1985-09-28 |title=Medicine and Books |url=https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.291.6499.893 |journal=BMJ |volume=291 |issue=6499 |pages=893–895 |doi=10.1136/bmj.291.6499.893 |issn=0267-0623}}