Forced assimilation in Azerbaijan

The leadership of the Azerbaijan SSR used the manipulated census data in Soviet ethnography, creating a narrative of the “voluntary and complete assimilation” of the Talysh people, and that it occurred “naturally over time rather than from artificial manipulations of minority communities and identifications".{{sfn|Goff|2021|pp=144–145}} Subsequently, there followed the production of a large amount of encyclopedic, ethnographic, linguistic, historical-geographical and other material that developed and reproduced narratives designed to justify the national “erasure” of the Talyshis and strengthen the official myth of their “voluntary assimilation.” Soviet ethnographers emphasized their common features in culture and life with the Azerbaijanis and presented the “assimilation” of the Iranian-speaking Talysh by the Turkic-speaking Azerbaijanis as an “impressive achievement” of the Soviet state, “ethnohistorical progress.”{{sfn|Goff|2021|pp=166—170}} So, for example, the [[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]] began to say that “in the USSR, the Talysh almost merged with the Azerbaijanis, who are very close in material and spiritual culture, and therefore were not identified in the 1970 census”.{{sfn|Goff|2021|pp=169—170}}{{Cite journal |author = |editor= |format= |url= http://gatchina3000.ru/big/108/696_bolshaya-sovetskaya.htm |title= Талыши |type= |orig-year= | agency = |edition= [[Great Soviet Encyclopedia|Большая советская энциклопедия]] |location= М. |date= |year= |publisher= Советская энциклопедия |at= |volume= |issue= |number= |pages = |page= |series= |isbn = |issn = |doi = |bibcode = |arxiv = |pmid = |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111021143929/http://gatchina3000.ru/big/108/696_bolshaya-sovetskaya.htm |archive-date = 2011-10-21 |language= |quote= }}

«В СССР Т. почти слились с азербайджанцами, которым очень близки по материальной и духовной культуре, поэтому не выделены в переписи 1970».

The leadership of the Azerbaijan SSR used the manipulated census data in Soviet ethnography, creating a narrative of the “voluntary and complete assimilation” of the Talysh people, and that it occurred “naturally over time rather than from artificial manipulations of minority communities and identifications".{{sfn|Goff|2021|pp=144–145}} Subsequently, there followed the production of a large amount of encyclopedic, ethnographic, linguistic, historical-geographical and other material that developed and reproduced narratives designed to justify the national “erasure” of the Talyshis and strengthen the official myth of their “voluntary assimilation.” Soviet ethnographers emphasized their common features in culture and life with the Azerbaijanis and presented the “assimilation” of the Iranian-speaking Talysh by the Turkic-speaking Azerbaijanis as an “impressive achievement” of the Soviet state, “ethnohistorical progress.”{{sfn|Goff|2021|pp=166—170}} So, for example, the [[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]] began to say that “in the USSR, the Talysh almost merged with the Azerbaijanis, who are very close in material and spiritual culture, and therefore were not identified in the 1970 census”.{{sfn|Goff|2021|pp=169—170}}{{Cite journal |author = |editor= |format= |url= http://gatchina3000.ru/big/108/696_bolshaya-sovetskaya.htm |title= Талыши |type= |orig-year= | agency = |edition= [[Great Soviet Encyclopedia|Большая советская энциклопедия]] |location= М. |date= |year= |publisher= Советская энциклопедия |at= |volume= |issue= |number= |pages = |page= |series= |isbn = |issn = |doi = |bibcode = |arxiv = |pmid = |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111021143929/http://gatchina3000.ru/big/108/696_bolshaya-sovetskaya.htm |archive-date = 2011-10-21 |language= |quote= }}

«В СССР Т. почти слились с азербайджанцами, которым очень близки по материальной и духовной культуре, поэтому не выделены в переписи 1970».

This assimilation policy put great social, political and economic pressure on the Talyshis and on their daily life, encouraging them to “merge” with the "titular" Azerbaijani nation. For example, Talyshis could not register as representatives of Talysh nationality in official documents, and parents could not enroll their children in schools teaching in the Talysh language. Some Talysh petitioned the authorities for their rights to be identified as Talysh in government documents, but all these requests were rejected by the authorities until 1989. Others, finding no other way out, accepted Azerbaijani identification in order to avoid discrimination in everyday life, for example, when applying for a job. Krista Goff also cites stories of Talysh who admitted that due to the stigmatization of their nationality, the lack of schools, books and other resources for the Talyshis of Azerbaijan, as well as the lack of any preferences for being a Talyshi, they preferred the Azerbaijani self-identification and the [[Azerbaijani language]], even fearing that their children could face discrimination if they speak Azerbaijani with a Talysh accent. Representatives of the Talysh people often internalized these assimilation narratives about themselves that were told to them and which they found in encyclopedias, articles and other printed material.{{sfn|Goff|2021|pp=140—141, 145}}

This assimilation policy put great social, political and economic pressure on the Talyshis and on their daily life, encouraging them to “merge” with the "titular" Azerbaijani nation. For example, Talyshis could not register as representatives of Talysh nationality in official documents, and parents could not enroll their children in schools teaching in the [[Talysh language]]. Some Talysh petitioned the authorities for their rights to be identified as Talysh in government documents, but all these requests were rejected by the authorities until 1989. Others, finding no other way out, accepted Azerbaijani identification in order to avoid discrimination in everyday life, for example, when applying for a job. Krista Goff also cites stories of Talysh who admitted that due to the stigmatization of their nationality, the lack of schools, books and other resources for the Talyshis of Azerbaijan, as well as the lack of any preferences for being a Talyshi, they preferred the Azerbaijani self-identification and the [[Azerbaijani language]], even fearing that their children could face discrimination if they speak Azerbaijani with a Talysh accent. Representatives of the Talysh people often internalized these assimilation narratives about themselves that were told to them and which they found in encyclopedias, articles and other printed material.{{sfn|Goff|2021|pp=140—141, 145}}

From 1960 to 1989, the Talysh were not included in the censuses as a separate ethnic group, as they were considered part of the Azerbaijanis (Azerbaijani Turks).

From 1960 to 1989, the Talysh were not included in the censuses as a separate ethnic group, as they were considered part of the Azerbaijanis (Azerbaijani Turks).

==== Armenians ====

==== Armenians ====

{{See also|Anti-Armenian sentiment in Azerbaijan}}

{{See also|Anti-Armenian sentiment in Azerbaijan}}

Armenians also experienced discriminatory practices. But despite facing constraints on their national-cultural development and political influence, Armenians always maintained a recognized status of their nationality in Soviet Azerbaijan, owing to factors such as the size of their population, the special status of the [[Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast]] (NKAO), and the presence of the neighboring Armenian SSR. Relative to other ethnic groups within Azerbaijan, many Armenians in Azerbaijan enjoyed better access to native language educational resources;{{sfn|Goff|2021|p=10}} however, the suppression of Armenian language and culture was widespread; many Armenian churches, cemeteries, and schools were closed or destroyed, clerics arrested, and Armenian historical education was banned.Chorbajian, Levon. ''The making of Nagorno-Karabagh: from secession to republic''. Springer, 2001. "There was overwhelming evidence demonstrating the existence of anti-Armenian policy in Nagorno-Karabagh sanctioned by Azerbaijan. Accounts of forced migrations and resettlement were substantiated by the decreasing and increasing percentage of Armenians and Azeris respectively in the population.61 The lack of economic development and demographic manipulations had been accompanied by cultural suppression. In the 1930s, 118 Armenian churches were closed, clerics arrested and text- books on Armenian history banned from schools. During the 1960s, 28 Armenian schools were closed, churches and cemeteries destroyed and Azeri was imposed as the official language of the republic. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, cultural ties with Armenia were severed and Azeris began to be appointed in Nagorno-Karabagh’s law enforcement and economic bodies." The Armenian educational institutions that remained were under the administration of the Azeri Ministry of Education, which enforced prohibitions against teaching Armenian history and using Armenian materials and led to a curriculum that significantly differed from that of Armenia itself.{{Cite book |title=Armenia and Karabagh: the struggle for unity |date=1991 |publisher=Minority Rights Group |isbn=978-1-873194-00-3 |editor-last=Walker |editor-first=Christopher J. |series=Minority Rights Publications |location=London |quote="[The exodus of many Armenians is] not a matter of chance, but is due to the persistent policy of Baku, whose aim is to 'Nakhichevanize' the territory, to de-Armenize it, first culturally and then physically."}}{{Cite web |title=Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in the South Caucasus: Nagorno-Karabakh and the Legacy of Soviet Nationalities Policy |url=https://www.routledge.com/Ethnicity-Nationalism-and-Conflict-in-the-South-Caucasus-Nagorno-Karabakh/Geukjian/p/book/9781138279032 |access-date=2024-01-29 |website=Routledge & CRC Press |language=en |quote=The Armenian schools were attached to the Azerbaijani Ministry of Education and were prohibited from teaching Armenian history. The employed staff was Azerbaijani. Armenian books and journals from neighbouring Armenia and the Armenian diaspora were totally banned. These measures were taken to ‘hamper Armenian cultural development’ in N-K [Nagorno-Karabakh].}}{{Cite web |title=Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in the South Caucasus: Nagorno-Karabakh and the Legacy of Soviet Nationalities Policy |url=https://www.routledge.com/Ethnicity-Nationalism-and-Conflict-in-the-South-Caucasus-Nagorno-Karabakh/Geukjian/p/book/9781138279032 |access-date=2024-01-29 |website=Routledge & CRC Press |language=en |quote="80 per cent of the population of Mountainous Karabakh are Armenians and they constitute about 130,000 individuals. The region is about 4500 square kilometers. There are 187 Armenian schools, which unfortunately are administered not by the Ministry of Education of Armenia, but that of Azerbaijan, in which there is not a single inspector or a single person who knows Armenian. This is a very dangerous thing and it is harming us."}} Moreover, restrictions limited cultural exchanges and communication between Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians and Armenia, with significant neglect in transportation and communication infrastructure.{{Cite journal |last=Yamskov |first=A. N. |date=1991 |title=Ethnic Conflict in the Transcausasus: The Case of Nagorno-Karabakh |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/657781 |journal=Theory and Society |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=631–660 |doi=10.1007/BF00232663 |issn=0304-2421 |jstor=657781 |s2cid=140492606 |url-access=subscription}}

Armenians also experienced discriminatory practices. But despite facing constraints on their national-cultural development and political influence, Armenians always maintained a recognized status of their nationality in Soviet Azerbaijan, owing to factors such as the size of their population, the special status of the [[Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast]] (NKAO), and the presence of the neighboring Armenian SSR. Relative to other ethnic groups within Azerbaijan, many [[Armenians in Azerbaijan]] enjoyed better access to native language educational resources;{{sfn|Goff|2021|p=10}} however, the suppression of [[Armenian language]] and culture was widespread; many Armenian churches, cemeteries, and schools were closed or destroyed, clerics arrested, and Armenian historical education was banned.Chorbajian, Levon. ''The making of Nagorno-Karabagh: from secession to republic''. Springer, 2001. "There was overwhelming evidence demonstrating the existence of anti-Armenian policy in Nagorno-Karabagh sanctioned by Azerbaijan. Accounts of forced migrations and resettlement were substantiated by the decreasing and increasing percentage of Armenians and Azeris respectively in the population.61 The lack of economic development and demographic manipulations had been accompanied by cultural suppression. In the 1930s, 118 Armenian churches were closed, clerics arrested and text- books on Armenian history banned from schools. During the 1960s, 28 Armenian schools were closed, churches and cemeteries destroyed and Azeri was imposed as the official language of the republic. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, cultural ties with Armenia were severed and Azeris began to be appointed in Nagorno-Karabagh’s law enforcement and economic bodies." The Armenian educational institutions that remained were under the administration of the Azeri Ministry of Education, which enforced prohibitions against teaching Armenian history and using Armenian materials and led to a curriculum that significantly differed from that of Armenia itself.{{Cite book |title=Armenia and Karabagh: the struggle for unity |date=1991 |publisher=Minority Rights Group |isbn=978-1-873194-00-3 |editor-last=Walker |editor-first=Christopher J. |series=Minority Rights Publications |location=London |quote="[The exodus of many Armenians is] not a matter of chance, but is due to the persistent policy of Baku, whose aim is to 'Nakhichevanize' the territory, to de-Armenize it, first culturally and then physically."}}{{Cite web |title=Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in the South Caucasus: Nagorno-Karabakh and the Legacy of Soviet Nationalities Policy |url=https://www.routledge.com/Ethnicity-Nationalism-and-Conflict-in-the-South-Caucasus-Nagorno-Karabakh/Geukjian/p/book/9781138279032 |access-date=2024-01-29 |website=Routledge & CRC Press |language=en |quote=The Armenian schools were attached to the Azerbaijani Ministry of Education and were prohibited from teaching Armenian history. The employed staff was Azerbaijani. Armenian books and journals from neighbouring Armenia and the Armenian diaspora were totally banned. These measures were taken to ‘hamper Armenian cultural development’ in N-K [Nagorno-Karabakh].}}{{Cite web |title=Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in the South Caucasus: Nagorno-Karabakh and the Legacy of Soviet Nationalities Policy |url=https://www.routledge.com/Ethnicity-Nationalism-and-Conflict-in-the-South-Caucasus-Nagorno-Karabakh/Geukjian/p/book/9781138279032 |access-date=2024-01-29 |website=Routledge & CRC Press |language=en |quote="80 per cent of the population of Mountainous Karabakh are Armenians and they constitute about 130,000 individuals. The region is about 4500 square kilometers. There are 187 Armenian schools, which unfortunately are administered not by the Ministry of Education of Armenia, but that of Azerbaijan, in which there is not a single inspector or a single person who knows Armenian. This is a very dangerous thing and it is harming us."}} Moreover, restrictions limited cultural exchanges and communication between Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians and Armenia, with significant neglect in transportation and communication infrastructure.{{Cite journal |last=Yamskov |first=A. N. |date=1991 |title=Ethnic Conflict in the Transcausasus: The Case of Nagorno-Karabakh |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/657781 |journal=Theory and Society |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=631–660 |doi=10.1007/BF00232663 |issn=0304-2421 |jstor=657781 |s2cid=140492606 |url-access=subscription}}

The Azerbaijani government's decree in 1957 that Azerbaijani was to be the main language and the alteration of educational content to favor Azerbaijani history over Armenian exemplified the systemic efforts to assimilate the Armenian population culturally.{{sfn|Malkasian|1996|pp=27-28}} Baku's 1981 "law on the NKAO" denied additional rights, restricted cultural connections between Nagorno-Karabakh and Armenia, and removed provisions that had explicitly listed Armenian as a working language to be used by local authorities.{{Cite web |title=Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in the South Caucasus: Nagorno-Karabakh and the Legacy of Soviet Nationalities Policy |url=https://www.routledge.com/Ethnicity-Nationalism-and-Conflict-in-the-South-Caucasus-Nagorno-Karabakh/Geukjian/p/book/9781138279032 |access-date=2024-01-29 |website=Routledge & CRC Press |page=109 |language=en}} During the [[Khrushchev Thaw]], Karabakh Armenians began to periodically protest against the cultural and economic marginalization they faced in their native region. In 1962, they personally appealed to [[Nikita Khrushchev]], "enumerating their grievances with official Baku and requesting the transfer of their territories from the jurisdiction of Soviet Azerbaijan to that of either Soviet Armenia or the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]]."{{sfn|Shakarian|2025|p=105}} By the time of [[perestroika]], resentment against what was perceived as a forced "Azerification" campaign led to a [[Karabakh movement|mass movement for reunification with Armenia]].{{sfn|Malkasian|1996|pp=27-28}}{{Cite web |last=Palmer |first=James |date=2024-02-12 |title=Why Are Armenia and Azerbaijan Heading to War? |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/09/28/why-are-armenia-azerbaijan-heading-to-war-nagorno-karabakh/ |access-date=2024-02-07 |website=Foreign Policy |language=en-US}}

The Azerbaijani government's decree in 1957 that Azerbaijani was to be the main language and the alteration of educational content to favor Azerbaijani history over Armenian exemplified the systemic efforts to assimilate the Armenian population culturally.{{sfn|Malkasian|1996|pp=27-28}} Baku's 1981 "law on the NKAO" denied additional rights, restricted cultural connections between Nagorno-Karabakh and Armenia, and removed provisions that had explicitly listed Armenian as a working language to be used by local authorities.{{Cite web |title=Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in the South Caucasus: Nagorno-Karabakh and the Legacy of Soviet Nationalities Policy |url=https://www.routledge.com/Ethnicity-Nationalism-and-Conflict-in-the-South-Caucasus-Nagorno-Karabakh/Geukjian/p/book/9781138279032 |access-date=2024-01-29 |website=Routledge & CRC Press |page=109 |language=en}} During the [[Khrushchev Thaw]], Karabakh Armenians began to periodically protest against the cultural and economic marginalization they faced in their native region. In 1962, they personally appealed to [[Nikita Khrushchev]], "enumerating their grievances with official Baku and requesting the transfer of their territories from the jurisdiction of Soviet Azerbaijan to that of either Soviet Armenia or the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]]."{{sfn|Shakarian|2025|p=105}} By the time of [[perestroika]], resentment against what was perceived as a forced "Azerification" campaign led to a [[Karabakh movement|mass movement for reunification with Armenia]].{{sfn|Malkasian|1996|pp=27-28}}{{Cite web |last=Palmer |first=James |date=2024-02-12 |title=Why Are Armenia and Azerbaijan Heading to War? |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/09/28/why-are-armenia-azerbaijan-heading-to-war-nagorno-karabakh/ |access-date=2024-02-07 |website=Foreign Policy |language=en-US}}