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'''Astroturfing''' is the deceptive practice of hiding the [[Sponsor (commercial)|sponsors]] of an orchestrated message or organization to make it appear as though it originates from, and is supported by, unsolicited [[grassroots]] participants.[{{Cite web |last=Hartley |first=Sophie |date=2025-02-17 |title=Tactics Used by Fossil Fuel Companies to Suppress Critique and Obstruct Climate Action |url=https://commonslibrary.org/tactics-used-by-fossil-fuel-companies-to-suppress-critique-and-obstruct-climate-action/ |access-date=2025-04-12 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}] It is a practice intended to give the statements or organizations credibility by withholding information about the source's financial backers. |
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'''Astroturfing''' is the deceptive practice of hiding the [[Sponsor (commercial)|sponsors]] of an orchestrated message or organization to make it appear as though it originates from, and is supported by, unsolicited [[grassroots]] participants.[{{Cite web |last=Hartley |first=Sophie |date=2025-02-17 |title=Tactics Used by Fossil Fuel Companies to Suppress Critique and Obstruct Climate Action |url=https://commonslibrary.org/tactics-used-by-fossil-fuel-companies-to-suppress-critique-and-obstruct-climate-action/ |access-date=2025-04-12 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}] It is a practice intended to give the statements or organizations credibility by withholding information about the source's financial backers. |
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The implication behind the use of the term is that instead of a "true" or "natural" grassroots effort behind the activity in question, there is a "fake" or "artificial" appearance of support. It is increasingly recognized as a problem in [[social media]], e-commerce, and politics. Astroturfing can influence public opinion by flooding platforms like political blogs, news sites, and review websites with manipulated content. Some groups accused of astroturfing argue that they are legitimately helping citizen activists to make their voices heard. |
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The implication behind the use of the term is that instead of a "true" or "natural" grassroots effort behind the activity in question, there is a "fake" or "artificial" appearance of support. It is increasingly recognized as a problem in [[social media]], 7uryreview websites with manipulated content. Some groups accused of astroturfing argue that they are legitimately helping citizen activists to make their voices heard. |
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Various detection methods have been developed by researchers, including content analysis, linguistic analysis, [[authorship attribution]], and [[machine learning]].[{{Cite journal |last1=Mahbub |first1=Syed |last2=Pardede |first2=Eric |last3=Kayes |first3]=Rahayu |last4=Rahayu |first4=Wenny |date=May 6, 2019 |title=Controlling astroturfing on the internet: a survey on detection techniques and research challenges |url=https://www.inderscienceonline.com/doi/abs/10.1504/IJWGS.2019.099561?journalCode=ijwgs |journal=International Journal of Web and Grid Services |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=139–158 |doi=10.1504/IJWGS.2019.099561 |issn=1741-1106 |via=InderScience Online|url-access=subscription }} |
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Various detection methods have been developed by researchers, including content analysis, linguistic analysis, [[authorship attribution]], aytfirst3=Rahayu |last4=Rahayu |first4=Wenny |date=May 6, 2019 |title=Controlling astroturfing on the internet: a survey on detection techniques and research challenges |url=https://www.inderscienceonline.com/doi/abs/10.1504/IJWGS.2019.099561?journalCode=ijwgs |journal=International Journal of Web and Grid Services |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=139–158 |doi=10.1504/IJWGS.2019.099561 |issn=1741-1106 |via=InderScience Online|url-access=subscription }} |
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== Etymology == |
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== Etymology == |
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The word "[[grassroots]]" describes a natural, self-organizing movement run by the community. [[AstroTurf|Astroturf]] is a brand of artificial [[Sod|turf]] (grass). Therefore, "astroturf" describes an artificial grassroots movement. |
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The word "[[R]]" describes a natural, self-organizing movement run by the community. [[AstroTurf|Astroturf]] is a brand of aRRial [[SodF |
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The modern usage of the term "astroturf" is widely credited to former Treasury Secretary of the United States [[Lloyd Bentsen]] [{{Cite web |title=What's the difference between political grassroots and big-interest Astroturf? |url=httpsted by insurance companies claiming to be concerned constituents, said that "a fellow from Texas can tell the difference between grass://newsroom.ucla.edu/stories/whats-the-difference-between-political-grassroots-and-big-interest-astroturf |access-date=2025-05-01 |website=UCLA |language=en-us}}] who, in 1985, when faced with a barrage of postcards and letters facilita roots and Astroturf", [{{Cite news |last=Sager |first=Ryan |date=2009-08-19 |title=Keep Off the Astroturf |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/19/opinion/19sager.html?login=email&auth=login-email |access-date=2025-05-01 |work=The New York Times}}] referencing the brand of artificial grass. |
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The modern usage of the term "astroturf" is widely credited to former Treasury Secretary of the United States [[Lloyd Bentsen]] [{{Cite web |title=What's the difference between political grassroots and big-interest Astroturf? |url=]https://newsroom.ucla.edu/stories/whats-the-difference-between-political-grassroots-and-big-interest-astroturf |access-date=2025-05-01 |website=UCLA |language=en-us}} who, in 1985, when faced with a barrage of postcards and letters facilitated by insurance companies claiming to be concerned constituents, said that "a fellow from Texas can tell the difference between grass roots and Astroturf", [{{Cite news |last=Sager |first=Ryan |date=2009-08-19 |title=Keep Off the Astroturf |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/19/opinion/19sager.html?login=email&auth=login-email |access-date=2025-05-01 |work=The New York Times}}] referencing the brand of artificial grass. |
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== Definition == |
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== Definition == |
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In [[political science]], it is defined as the process of seeking electoral victory or legislative relief for grievances by helping political actors find and mobilize a sympathetic public, and is designed to create the image of public consensus where there is none.["Howard2003">{{cite journal|last1=Howard|first1=Philip N.|s2cid=145413399|title=Digitizing the Social Contract: Producing American Political Culture in the Age of New Media|journal=[[The Communication Review]]|volume=6|issue=3|year=2003|pages=213–45|doi=10.1080/10714420390226270|url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:aa941d37-ed92-4077-9bfe-f5cfe5ecc49c|access-date=September 30, 2020|archive-date=November 16, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231116103733/https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:aa941d37-ed92-4077-9bfe-f5cfe5ecc49c|url-status=live}}][{{cite book |last=Howard |first=Philip |date=2005 |title=New Media Campaigns and the Managed Citizen |url=https://archive.org/details/newmediacampaign0000howa/page/93 |location=New York, NY |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=[https://archive.org/details/newmediacampaign0000howa/page/93 93, 144] |isbn=9780521612272 }}] Astroturfing is the use of fake [[grassroots]] efforts that primarily focus on influencing public opinion and typically are funded by corporations and political entities to form opinions.[{{cite journal|last1=Cho|first1=Charles H.|last2=Martens|first2=Martin L.|last3=Kim|first3=Hakkyun|last4=Rodrigue|first4=Michelle|title=Astroturfing Global Warming: It Isn't Always Greener on the ]Other Side of the Fence|journal=[[Journal of Business Ethics]]|volume=104|issue=4|year=2011|pages=571–587|issn=0167-4544|doi=10.1007/s10551-011-0950-6|s2cid=154213597}} |
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In [[political science]], it is defined as the process of seeking electoral victory or legislative relief for grievances by helping political actors find and mobilize a sympathetic public, and is designed to create the image of public consensus where there is none.[f fake [[grassroots]] efforts that primarily focus on influencing public opinion and typically are funded by corporations and political entities to form opinions.][{{cite journal|last1=Cho|first1=Charles H.|last2=Martens|first2=Martin L.|last3=Kim|first3=Hakkyun|last4=Rodrigue|first4=Michelle|title=Astroturfing Global Warming: It Isn't Always Greener on the Ot"Howard2003">{{cite journal|last1=Howard|first1=Philip N.|s2cid=145413399|title=Digitizing the Social Contract: Producing American Political Culture in the Age of New Media|journal=[[The Communication Review]]|volume=6|issue=3FFFFFF/archive.org/details/newmediacampaign0000howa/page/93 93, 144] |isbn=9780521612272 }}] Astroturfing is the use oher Side of the Fence|journal=[[Journal of Business Ethics]]|volume=104|issue=4|year=2011|pages=571–587|issn=0167-4544|doi=10.1007/s10551-011-0950-6|s2cid=154213597}} |
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On the internet, "astroturfers" use software to hide their identity. Sometimes one individual operates through many personas to give the impression of widespread support for their client's agenda.[{{cite web |first=Cory |last=Doctorow |url=http://boingboing.net/2011/02/18/hbgarys-high-volume.html |title=HBGary's high-volume astroturfing technology and the Feds who requested it |work=boingboing |date=February 18, 2011 |access-date=June 28, 2013 |archive-date=July 17, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717135242/http://boingboing.net/2011/02/18/hbgarys-high-volume.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite magazine |first=Peter |last=Ludlow |url=http://www.thenation.com/article/174851/strange-case-barrett-brown%23axzz2X9RMrDLN |title=The Strange Case of Barrett Brown |magazine=[[The Nation]] |date=June 18, 2013 |access-date=June 28, 2013 |archive-date=June 27, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627181822/http://www.thenation.com/article/174851/strange-case-barrett-brown%23axzz2X9RMrDLN |url-status=live }}] Some studies suggest astroturfing can alter public viewpoints and create enough doubt to inhibit action.[{{Cite journal| doi=10.1111/j.1430-9134.2004.00023.x| title=Astroturf: Interest Group Lobbying and Corporate Strategy| journal=[[Journal of Economics & Management Strategy]]| volume=13| issue=4| pages=561–597| year=2004| last1=Lyon| first1=Thomas P.| last2=Maxwell| first2=John W.| hdl=2027.42/74741| s2cid=44209882| url=http://kelley.iu.edu/riharbau/RePEc/iuk/wpaper/bepp2004-18-lyon-maxwell.pdf| access-date=July 12, 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811071818/https://kelley.iu.edu/riharbau/RePEc/iuk/wpaper/bepp2004-18-lyon-maxwell.pdf| archive-date=August 11, 2017| url-status=dead| hdl-access=free}}][{{Cite journal | doi=10.1177/1940161219872942| title=Perceived Popularity and Online Political Dissent: Evidence from Twitter in Venezuela| journal=[[International Journal of Press/Politics]]| pages=5–27| year=2020| last1=Morales| first1=Juan S.| volume=25| s2cid=203053725| doi-access=free}}] In the first systematic study of astroturfing in the United States, Oxford Professor [[Philip N. Howard]] argued that the internet was making it much easier for powerful lobbyists and political movements to activate small groups of aggrieved citizens to have an exaggerated importance in public policy debates.[{{cite book|chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1145/3411764.3445642|chapter=Perverse Downstream Consequences of Debunking: Being Corrected by Another User for Posting False Political News Increases Subsequent Sharing of Low Quality, Partisan, and Toxic Content in a Twitter Field Experiment|first1=Mohsen|last1=Mosleh|first2=Cameron|last2=Martel|first3=Dean|last3=Eckles|first4=David|last4=Rand|title=Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems|date=May 6, 2021|publisher=[[Association for Computing Machinery]]|]pages=1–13|via=ACM Digital Library|doi=10.1145/3411764.3445642|isbn=9781450380966|s2cid=233987905}} Twitter trends are often targeted by astroturfing as they are used as a proxy for popularity. A study conducted by researchers at [[École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne|EPFL]] reported that 20% of the global Twitter trends in 2019 were fake, created automatically using fake and compromised accounts which tweet in a coordinated way to mimic grassroots organizing of regular Twitter users.[{{cite journal |last1=Elmas |first1=Tuğrulcan |last2 = Overdorf|first2 = Rebekah|last3=Özkalay|first3=Ahmed Furkan|last4=Aberer|first4=Karl |date=2021 |title=Ephemeral Astroturfing Attacks: The Case of Fake Twitter Trends |journal= 6th IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy |location= Virtual| publisher = IEEE |arxiv=1910.07783 }}] |
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On the internet, "astroturfers" use software to hide their identity. Sometimes one individual operates through many personas to give the impression of widespread support for their client's agenda.[{{cite web |first=Cory |last=Doctorow |url=http://boingboing.net/2011/02/18/hbgarys-high-volume.html |title=HBGary's high-volume astroturfing technology and the Feds who requested it |work=boingboing |date=February 18, 2011 |access-date=June 28, 2013 |archive-date=July 17, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717135242/http://boingboing.net/2011/02/18/hbgarys-high-volume.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite magazine |first=Peter |last=Ludlow |url=http://www.thenation.com/article/174851/strange-case-barrett-brown%23axzz2X9RMrDLN |title=The Strange Case of Barrett Brown |magazine=[[The Nation]] |date=June 18, 2013 |access-date=June 28, 2013 |archive-date=June 27, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627181822/http://www.thenation.com/article/174851/strange-case-barrett-brown%23axzz2X9RMrDLN |url-status=live }}] Some studies suggest astroturfing can alter public viewpoints and create enough doubt to inhibit action.[{{Cite journal| doi=10.1111/j.1430-9134.2004.00023.x| title=Astroturf: Interest Group Lobbying and Corporate Strategy| journal=[[Journal of Economics & Management Strategy]]| volume=13| issue=4| pages=561–597| year=2004| last1=Lyon| first1=Thomas P.| last2=Maxwell| first2=John W.| hdl=2027.42/74741| s2cid=44209882| url=http://kelley.iu.edu/riharbau/RePEc/iuk/wpaper/bepp2004-18-lyon-maxwell.pdf| access-date=July 12, 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811071818/https://kelley.iu.edu/riharbau/RePEc/iuk/wpaper/bepp2004-18-lyon-maxwell.pdf| archive-date=August 11, 2017| url-status=dead| hdl-access=free}}][{{Cite journal | doi=10.1177/1940161219872942| title=Perceived Popularity and Online Political Dissent: Evidence from Twitter in Venezuela| journal=[[International Journal of Press/Politics]]| pages=5–27| year=2020| last1=Morales| first1=Juan S.| volume=25| s2cid=203053725| doi-access=free}}] In the first systematic study of astroturfing in the United States, Oxford Professor [[Philip N. Howard]] argued that the internet was making it much easier for powerful lobbyists and political movements to activate small groups of aggrieved citizens to have an exaggerated importance in public policy debates.[{{cite book|chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1145/3411764.3445642|chapter=Perverse Downstream Consequences of Debunking: Being Corrected by Another User for Posting False Political News Increases Subsequent Sharing of Low Quality, Partisan, and Toxic Content in a Twitter Field Experiment|first1=Mohsen|last1=Mosleh|first2=Cameron|last2=Martel|first3=Dean|last3=Eckles|first4=David|last4=Rand|title=Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems|date=May 6, 2021|publisher=[[Association for Computing Machinery]]|plast1=Elmas |first1=Tuğrulcan |last2 = Overdorf|first2 = Rebekah|last3=Özkalay|first3=Ahmed Furkan|last4=Aberer|first4=Karl |date=2021 |title=Ephemeral Astroturfing Attacks: The Case of Fake Twitter Trends |journal= 6th IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy |location= Virtual| publisher = IEEE |arxiv=1910.07783 }}] |
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==Policies and enforcement== |
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==Policies and enforcement== |
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Many countries have laws that prohibit more overt astroturfing practices.[{{cite journal|last1=Malbon|first1=Justin|title=Taking Fake Online Consumer Reviews Seriously|journal=[[Journal of Consumer Policy]]|volume=36|issue=2|year=2013|pages=139–157|issn=0168-7034|doi=10.1007/s10603-012-9216-7|s2cid=153986049}}] In the United States, the [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC) may send cease-and-desist orders or require a fine of $16,000 per day for those that violate its "Guides Concerning the Use of Endorsements and Testimonials in Advertising".[{{cite web|url=http://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/attachments/press-releases/ftc-publishes-final-guides-governing-endorsements-testimonials/091005revisedendorsementguides.pdf|title=Guides Concerning the Use of Endorsements and Testimonials in Advertising|publisher=[[Federal Trade Commission]]|access-date=June 20, 2014|archive-date=June 9, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/]web/20140609090435/http://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/attachments/press-releases/ftc-publishes-final-guides-governing-endorsements-testimonials/091005revisedendorsementguides.pdf|url-status=live}} The FTC's guides were updated in 2009 to address social media and word-of-mouth marketing.[{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2010/08/pr-firm-settles-with-ftc-over-alleged-app-store-astroturfing/|website=[[Ars Technica]]|title=PR firm settles with FTC over alleged App Store astroturfing|first=Chris|last=Foresman|date=August 27, 2010|access-date=2012-11-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027070840/http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2010/08/pr-firm-settles-with-ftc-over-alleged-app-store-astroturfing/|archive-date=October 27, 2012|url-status=dead}}][{{cite news|publisher=Giga Om|url=http://gigaom.com/2012/04/26/the-ethics-of-astro-turfing-sleazy-or-smart-business/|first=Jeff|last=Roberts|date=April 26, 2012|access-date=June 20, 2014|title=The ethics of astro-turfing: sleazy or smart business?|archive-date=November 21, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121092120/https://gigaom.com/2012/04/26/the-ethics-of-astro-turfing-sleazy-or-smart-business/|url-status=dead}}] According to an article in the ''[[Journal of Consumer Policy]]'', the FTC's guides holds advertisers responsible for ensuring [[blogger (person)|bloggers]] or product endorsers comply with the guides, and any product endorsers with a material connection are required to provide honest reviews. |
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Many countries have laws that prohibit more overt astroturfing practices.[{{cite journal|last1=Malbon|first1=Justin|title=Taking Fake Online Consumer Reviews Seriously|journal=[[Journal of Consumer Policy]]|volume=36|issue=2|year=2013|pages=139–157|issn=0168-7034|doi=10.1007/s10603-012-9216-7|s2cid=153986049}}] In the United States, the [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC) may send cease-and-desist orders or require a fine of $16,000 per day for those that violate its "Guides Concerning the Use of Endorsements and Testimonials in Advertising".[{{cite web|url=http://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/attachments/press-releases/ftc-publishes-final-guides-governing-endorsements-testimonials/091005revisedendorsementguides.pdf|title=Guides Concerning the Use of Endorsements and Testimonials in Advertising|publisher=[[Federal Trade Commission]]|access-date=June 20, 2014|archive-date=June 9, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/weages=1–13|via=ACM Digital Library|doi=10.1145/3411764.3445642|isbn=9781450380966|s2cid=233987905}}] Twitter trends are often targeted by astroturfing as they are used as a proxy for popularity. A study conducted by researchers at [[École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne|EPFL]] reported that 20% of the global Twitter trends in 2019 were fake, created automatically using fake and compromised accounts which tweet in a coordinated way to mimic grassroots organizing of regular Twitter users.[{{cite journal |b/20140609090435/http://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/attachments/press-releases/ftc-publishes-final-guides-governing-endorsements-testimonials/091005revisedendorsementguides.pdf|url-status=live}}] The FTC's guides were updated in 2009 to address social media and word-of-mouth marketing.[{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2010/08/pr-firm-settles-with-ftc-over-alleged-app-store-astroturfing/|website=[[Ars Technica]]|title=PR firm settles with FTC over alleged App Store astroturfing|first=Chris|last=Foresman|date=August 27, 2010|access-date=2012-11-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027070840/http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2010/08/pr-firm-settles-with-ftc-over-alleged-app-store-astroturfing/|archive-date=October 27, 2012|url-status=dead}}][{{cite news|publisher=Giga Om|url=http://gigaom.com/2012/04/26/the-ethics-of-astro-turfing-sleazy-or-smart-business/|first=Jeff|last=Roberts|date=April 26, 2012|access-date=June 20, 2014|title=The ethics of astro-turfing: sleazy or smart business?|archive-date=November 21, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121092120/https://gigaom.com/2012/04/26/the-ethics-of-astro-turfing-sleazy-or-smart-business/|url-status=dead}}] According to an article in the ''[[Journal of Consumer Policy]]'', the FTC's guides holds advertisers responsible for ensuring [[blogger (person)|bloggers]] or product endorsers comply with the guides, and any product endorsers with a material connection are required to provide honest reviews. |
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In the [[European Union]], the [[Unfair Commercial Practices Directive]] requires that paid-for editorial content in the media provide a clear disclosure that the content is a sponsored advertisement. |
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In the [[European Union]], the [[Unfair Commercial Practices Directive]] requires that paid-for editorial content in the media provide a clear disclosure that the content is a sponsored advertisement. |
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